The Spanish Civil War: A Concise Overview
The Coup and the Start of the Civil War
On July 17, 1936, a military uprising began in Spanish Africa and quickly spread to the mainland. The rebels found success in rural and conservative areas of Spain, while the industrialized and developed regions largely resisted.
The uprising failed to consolidate its power and devolved into a civil war between two sides:
- The Rebels: A conglomerate of military personnel, landowners, and business owners. They were monarchists, members of right-wing parties, and Catholics. They were inspired and supported by fascism.
- The Loyalists: Workers, employees, and urban laborers. They were affiliated with socialist, communist, and anarchist unions. The middle class republicans supported the loyalist cause, although they feared a social revolution.
The Spanish Civil War was a confrontation between the old dominant groups of the Restoration era (the army) and the emerging groups of workers and the middle class in large cities who wanted a social democratic and fair political order.
Military Operations of the War
Early Stages and the Battle for Madrid
Troops from Africa linked up with rebel forces in western Andalusia and eliminated resistance in Badajoz. From there, they advanced towards Madrid, taking Toledo along the way. Madrid resisted a strong attack, and the Republican government relocated there.
Battles Around Madrid and the Northern Front
Both armies began to regularize. The Republic formed the Popular Army, integrating the militias. Franco militarized his volunteer forces. After the first attempt to take the capital failed, the rebels planned two flanking maneuvers to isolate Madrid, but they did not succeed. Franco decided to move to the northern coast.
The bombing of Guernica was the first aerial attack of its kind. The Republic launched the Brunete and Belchite offensives.
Advance Towards the Mediterranean
After occupying the north, Franco’s army launched a campaign in Aragon and the Mediterranean, reaching Castellon. The Republican territory was divided into two zones. Franco headed south to conquer Valencia, but the offensive was halted when the Republican army launched an attack on the Ebro River.
The Battle of the Ebro and the End of the War
The Battle of the Ebro was the last major battle of the war. Franco’s army achieved a decisive victory, but their forces were exhausted. Franco decided to launch an offensive in Catalonia, occupying Barcelona. The Republican government and the Catalan president, Companys, had to flee to France.
The Republic only held territory in the central zone, but there were no more significant battles. France and Great Britain recognized Franco’s government, and Azaña resigned as president in Paris. The heads of the defense of Madrid tried to negotiate with Franco, but he only accepted unconditional surrender. The last cities fell in March, and Franco entered Madrid in April 1939. The communists continued to resist. On April 1, 1939, Franco signed the last part of the war in Burgos.
Political Evolution in the Two Zones During the Civil War
The Republican Zone (Contained Revolution)
In the summer of 1936, power was fragmented because the army had rebelled. The CNT and UGT initiated a social revolution with a collectivist character, proposing changes in property ownership and destroying the power of the state. Agricultural collectivization spread through Aragon, Valencia, Andalusia, and La Mancha. In cities, many people formed committees and councils led by the UGT and CNT. They seized churches and convents. The committees and councils eventually formed regional autonomous councils controlled by the unions and workers’ parties.
The Largo Caballero government, a coalition of republicans, socialists, and anarchists, aimed to curb the social revolution. Their objective was to eliminate the committees and councils and create the People’s Army based on mixed brigades. Largo Caballero faced problems trying to integrate the PCE into military operations. The CNT and POUM wanted to create a separate Catalan Republic. This resulted in the Largo Caballero government crisis.
The new Negrin government focused on military resistance and sought a negotiated solution to the war, but Franco only accepted unconditional surrender.
The Rebel Zone (Totalitarian State)
The political and military groups that supported the uprising were divided, so they accepted the supremacy of the army, which was in charge of organizing the new state. After Sanjurjo’s death, the rebels created a military junta in Burgos, responsible for governing the occupied territory. Franco became the “Head of State and Government.” Franco’s military and political merits seemed indisputable, and he gained the support of Hitler and Mussolini.
The institutionalization of the new state followed the model of the Italian fascist state. A single party (JONS) was created, with Franco as its head. The party concentrated all power. The government and state legislated on multiple issues. It was configured as a corporate state that grouped employers and employees and controlled the media.