The Spanish Civil War: A Concise Overview
The Uprising and Early Stages
In July 1936, Colonel Yagüe initiated a military rebellion against the Second Spanish Republic in Melilla. While many military units joined the coup, including Falangists and Carlists, the government’s response was slow. The uprising saw initial success in some areas, but ultimately failed in key industrial centers like Barcelona, Madrid, and Valencia after intense fighting from July 17th to 20th. This division marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War.
The rebels, comprised of conservatives, monarchists, and Falangists, opposed the Republic. Defenders of the Republic included socialists, communists, and anarchosyndicalists, who fought to maintain the Republic’s legitimacy. The war quickly drew international attention. Conservative governments and European fascists viewed Franco’s coup as a bulwark against the spread of communism, while the Republic sought aid from Western democracies.
In August 1936, a non-intervention committee was established in London. Largo Caballero’s government turned to the Soviet Union for weapons and supplies. International Brigades of anti-fascist volunteers joined the Republican side, while Germany and Italy provided arms and military support to the rebels, including the Condor Legion and Corpo Truppe Volontarie.
The War’s Progression
During the summer and fall of 1936, militias formed into battalions, often under the control of unions and political parties. The Republican side saw the rise of councils, committees, and juntas, which assumed power. In some areas, these merged to form regional committees and peasant councils. Workers initiated a social revolution from the left. The early months of the war witnessed a backlash against the Church, the bourgeoisie, landowners, and the wealthy.
With the rebels advancing, Largo Caballero formed a new government in September 1936, composed of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists. This government aimed to strengthen state power, dissolving the earlier committees and creating a unified Popular Army. Internal divisions persisted, however. In 1937, the Catalan government ordered anarchists to leave Barcelona, leading to clashes between the CNT and POUM against the PSUC, ERC, and UGT. Forces sent by the central government quelled the resistance.
In May 1937, Juan Negrín formed a new Socialist-led government. The POUM was outlawed, and its leader, Andreu Nin, was assassinated. The government relocated to Barcelona to control the region’s resources. By April 1938, shortages of food and essential supplies led to calls for a negotiated end to the war, with a 13-point program proposing a ceasefire, the continuation of the Republic, and new elections.
The End of the War
The September 1938 Munich Pact further weakened the Republic. The loss of Catalonia in early 1939 forced the government into exile, and President Azaña resigned. In the Nationalist-controlled zone, the military struggled to establish a new state. A defense committee was formed in Burgos on July 24th. On October 1, 1936, Franco was declared head of state and generalissimo of the Spanish armies.
Franco adopted a strategy of attrition, prolonging the war. In April 1937, he merged the Falange and Carlist parties. In January 1938, he dissolved the existing governing body and formed the first Francoist government. The construction of the Francoist state was accompanied by extreme violence. The initial military coup had evolved into a full-blown civil war, lasting until April 1939.
The rebels initially focused on capturing Madrid. In November 1936, the government moved to Valencia, leaving General Miaja in charge of Madrid’s defense. Franco’s attempts to isolate Madrid by cutting off communications with Valencia failed at the Battle of Jarama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937). In Andalusia, Nationalist forces captured Málaga. Facing difficulties in taking Madrid, Franco shifted his focus to the north. The German Condor Legion bombed Guernica on April 26th. By October, Gijón and Bilbao had fallen.
A Republican offensive in the summer of 1937, including the battles of Brunete and Belchite, failed to halt Franco’s advance. By the end of 1937, the Republican government implemented military reforms. A Republican offensive against Teruel during the winter of 1937-38 resulted in the city’s brief capture before it was retaken by Franco. Republican territory remained divided. To stop the Nationalist advance, a major offensive was launched across the Ebro River in July 1938. The Battle of the Ebro, the war’s bloodiest, resulted in a Republican defeat with heavy casualties.
In late December 1938, Franco launched the Catalonia offensive. Barcelona fell on January 26, 1939, and the Republican army retreated towards the French border. Despite attempts at resistance in Madrid, the capital surrendered on March 28th. The war officially ended on April 1, 1939.