The Spanish Civil War: A Historical Overview
1. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
2. Development Phases
2.1 The Narrow Passage (July 1936–Spring 1937)
In this initial phase, the insurgents seized control of roughly half of Spain. The Army of Africa, bolstered by German and Italian support, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar between August and October 1936, occupying much of Andalusia and Extremadura. After securing Badajoz, they linked up with the northern army. The capture of San Sebastian and Irun on the French-Spanish border in September 1936 isolated the Republican-held north, cutting off crucial supply lines. At the end of September, Nationalist forces relieved the siege of the Alcázar of Toledo, creating a powerful symbol for their cause. However, Nationalist advances on Madrid from both north and south failed to capture the capital. Subsequent attempts to encircle Madrid through bloody battles at the Coruña Road (December 1936–January 1937), Jarama (February 1937), and Guadalajara (March 1937) were also unsuccessful. The Republican victory at Guadalajara stabilized the front around Madrid, a line that would remain largely unchanged until the war’s end. In February 1937, Italian troops, fighting alongside Nationalist forces, captured Málaga. This first phase saw the partial failure of the coup transform into a full-blown civil war, shifting from a war of movement to a war of attrition with numerous armies and small, but strategically significant, advances at a high cost in lives. Simultaneously, the Republican state, under immense pressure from General Francisco Franco, consolidated civil and military power in the Republican zone.
2.2 From the Battle of the North to Teruel (Spring 1937–Spring 1938)
This phase is characterized by the northward shift of operations, with Franco’s troops conquering the Cantabrian coast. A key event was the bombing of Guernica, the Basque capital, by German and Italian aircraft of the Condor Legion on April 26, 1937. In June, Bilbao fell to Nationalist forces, followed by Santander in August. By October, the northern front was secured with the conquest of Asturias. Republican efforts focused on relieving pressure in the north through limited offensives at Brunete (Madrid) and Belchite (Aragon) between July and September 1937. A new offensive in Lower Aragon, the Battle of Teruel, was fought under extreme winter conditions. Republicans captured Teruel in December, but it was retaken by Nationalist forces in February 1938. This stage revealed the Burgos government’s ability to organize a militarized state fully dedicated to the war effort. Republican attempts to create a regular army capable of matching Franco’s disciplined troops were hampered by political tensions within the Republican zone.
2.3 The Battle of the Ebro (April–December 1938)
This critical phase began with a Nationalist offensive in Aragon, reaching Castellón in April. Republican territory was split, with Catalonia, including Barcelona and the General Staff under General Rojo, separated from the central-south zone, headquartered in Madrid under General Miaja. Despite low morale after military setbacks, Republican resistance intensified. In July 1938, the Republic launched its last major offensive at the Ebro River, resulting in the war’s bloodiest battle, with casualties reaching 60,000 on each side. Initial Republican successes were reversed by a Nationalist counteroffensive, leading to a brutal war of attrition. The Republican army was severely weakened, forced into a defensive posture for the remainder of the war. By November, Republicans evacuated their Ebro positions, and in mid-December, Nationalist forces launched their offensive against Catalonia. Although the Republic still held Madrid, Catalonia, much of La Mancha, Valencia, and the southeast, the war’s outcome was sealed. The Battle of the Ebro shattered Republican morale and operational capacity. The Republic’s strategic objective at the Ebro was to buy time, hoping for an international conflict that might change the military situation. However, the Munich Agreement in September 1938 dashed these hopes.
2.4 The Battle of Catalonia and the End of the War (December 1938–March 1939)
Nationalist forces launched their largest offensive of the war in Catalonia. The fall of Barcelona on January 26, 1939, led President Manuel Azaña and the Republican government to flee to France on February 7. Republican resistance in Catalonia ended on February 9, with 500,000 people going into exile. The final act took place in Madrid, marked by violent clashes. In early March, a communist faction of the Defense Board, led by Colonel Segismundo Casado, seized power, establishing a National Defense Council. They sought a negotiated peace with Franco, contrary to Prime Minister Juan Negrín and other communists who favored continued resistance. Franco rejected negotiations, demanding unconditional surrender. His troops entered Madrid on March 28, and the war officially ended on April 1, 1939.
3. Conclusion: Consequences of the War
For years, the death toll of the Spanish Civil War remained unclear. Today, our understanding of the conflict’s human cost has improved significantly. Deaths resulted from combat, political repression on both sides, and war-related hardships. Other victims included prisoners, exiles, and refugees. Both sides engaged in indiscriminate persecution of opponents. In the Republic, early repression was carried out by militias and party organizations. The “paseos” (extrajudicial killings) and repression in clandestine prisons in Madrid and Barcelona are examples of this early violence. The political chaos led to the deaths of figures like Melquiades Álvarez, and the Paracuellos killings of political prisoners near Madrid in November 1936 remain a dark chapter. The Nationalist repression was far more extensive, continuing after the war. The systematic elimination of enemies was a hallmark of the Franco regime, often based on military law. Federico García Lorca was murdered early in the war, and Republican leaders like Lluís Companys were executed after the war. From the war’s outset, Republican civilians fled their homes to escape Nationalist advances and potential reprisals. Many sought refuge in Republican-held areas, particularly Catalonia. Around 13,000 children were evacuated to various countries. Towards the war’s end, hundreds of thousands of people, including soldiers, families, and orphans, converged on Catalonia to cross into France. Between January 27 and February 3, 1939, around half a million Spaniards retreated into France. Many were interned in makeshift camps. About half returned to Spain, while the rest faced a long exile. Around 30,000 joined the French army, fighting against the Nazis in World War II. Thousands perished in Nazi concentration camps. Many exiles found refuge in Latin America or the USSR. The Republican government-in-exile was established in Mexico. The war’s total human cost is debated among historians, with estimates varying widely. Including deaths from war, repression, and its aftermath, along with the half a million Republican exiles, the total likely exceeds one million. The Republican defeat led to a mass exodus of intellectuals, scientists, and artists, delaying Spain’s development for decades. The war devastated the economy, destroying industrial infrastructure and cities. The country’s debt soared, and the decline in output lasted into the 1950s. The war’s moral impact was profound, leaving generations traumatized by the conflict, repression, and the oppressive atmosphere of postwar Spain.