The Spanish Civil War: A Nation Divided
Military Rebellion and the Spanish Civil War
Introduction
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) stands as a pivotal event in 20th-century Spanish history, profoundly impacting the nation for over 50 years. In July 1936, several army factions revolted against the Republic. International intervention on both sides amplified the conflict’s significance.
1. From Coup to Civil War
The military coup, meticulously planned, aimed to seize power swiftly through violence. General Mola orchestrated the plan, mobilizing civilian and military forces in Pamplona, along with the Army of Africa. They received support from Falangist groups and European fascist regimes.
Disagreements arose among right-wing groups and Mola:
- Mola: Sought a dictatorship to quell social unrest, paving the way for either a republic or a monarchy.
- Falange: Aimed to impose an Italian-style fascist model.
- CEDA: Advocated for an Alfonsine monarchy.
- Carlists: Desired a traditional monarchy.
Following Calvo Sotelo’s assassination in Madrid, negotiations between the right-wing and Mola progressed smoothly. Mola ordered the uprising on July 17, 1936. The rebellion began in Africa and quickly spread to the mainland, but faltered in major cities like Madrid and Barcelona. Loyalist victories in these cities led to a crackdown on rebels. However, rebel success in Seville provided a bridge for the Army of Africa to reach the Peninsula.
Spain became divided: the rebels, comprised of traditional right-wing groups, and the loyalists, consisting of Republican parties and organizations (socialists, communists, and syndicalists). The rebels held Galicia, Castile and León, Navarre, parts of Aragon, isolated areas of the Peninsula, and Morocco. This territorial division ignited a protracted civil war.
2. The Military Conflict
(1) War of Columns: The initially scattered rebel forces began expanding their territory, prioritizing the unification of their northern and southern holdings. Troops were diverted from Andalusia to Extremadura. The unified forces relieved the siege of the Alcázar of Toledo, a symbolic victory for the rebels. Franco’s columns advanced towards Madrid.
(2) Battles around Madrid: Franco’s attempt to take Madrid was thwarted by international aid and the loyalist General Miaja.
(3) Occupation of the North: Unable to capture Madrid, Franco turned his attention north, focusing on Vizcaya. The fighting intensified, with German planes bombing Guernica and Durango. Republican counteroffensives failed, and Franco secured control of the entire northern peninsula.
(4) Teruel and Advance to the Mediterranean: Republican General Vicente Rojo launched an offensive on Teruel, initially capturing the city. However, Franco’s forces retook Teruel months later and advanced to the Mediterranean, isolating Catalonia and Aragon.
(5) Battle of the Ebro: A major Republican counteroffensive across the Ebro River was eventually repelled by Franco’s reinforcements. The Republican side was severely weakened, and Franco’s troops entered Barcelona unopposed, securing control of Catalonia.
(6) End of the War: With Catalonia under his control, Franco focused on Madrid. While some Republicans, including Negrín, wished to continue fighting, France and Britain recognized Franco’s government. Madrid surrendered unconditionally on March 28, 1939. Franco declared the war’s end on April 1.
3. International Conflict
(1) The Prevailing View: The Spanish Civil War was seen as a potential catalyst for World War II, reflecting the broader European division between democracy, communism, and fascism. The Soviet Union supported the Republic, while right-wing factions viewed Franco as a bulwark against international communism.
(2) Non-Intervention Committee: To avert a larger war, European democracies (France and Britain) adopted a policy of non-intervention, avoiding aid to the Republic to prevent escalating tensions with fascist regimes (Hitler and Mussolini).
(3) Foreign Aid: The Republic purchased weapons using the Bank of Spain’s gold reserves held by the Soviet Union and received international volunteer brigades, which contributed to the defense of Madrid. However, this aid was insufficient against the substantial military support provided to the rebels by Germany and Italy.
4. The Republican Zone
Groups like the CNT and FAI sought a social revolution, aiming to dismantle the existing state and property system. Industrial collectives were established in Catalonia, along with boards, committees, and councils in other cities and towns. This led to a collapse of state authority and widespread disorder, which persisted despite Caballero’s attempts to rebuild the state. Militia integration into the Popular Army was resisted.
Clashes in Catalonia between anarchists and communists resulted in Caballero’s replacement by Negrín. Negrín aimed to prolong the war until democratic victories in Europe could ensure a democratic Spain. However, Franco’s demand for unconditional surrender preempted this strategy.
5. The Rebel Zone
The diverse ideologies of the rebel factions posed a challenge to unity. To address this, they agreed to unified military command. The military established the National Defence Council (Junta de Defensa Nacional), chaired by Cabanellas. The Junta promptly dissolved political parties, halted land reform, and suspended the constitution.
Following Sanjurjo’s death (the intended head of state), Franco emerged as a strong candidate due to his military successes and relative youth. He was subsequently appointed supreme leader.
6. Repression and Casualties of War
Both sides pursued and repressed suspected enemy infiltrators. However, repression was far more extensive on the rebel side, given their greater power and its continuation long after the war’s end.
Approximately 500,000 Spaniards fled into exile, primarily to France, due to terror and persecution. Some returned after the war, others fought with the Allies in World War II, some sought refuge in the Americas, and tragically, some were deported to Nazi extermination camps.