The Spanish Civil War: Causes, Battles, and Aftermath
**Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)**
The Military and the Conspiracy’s Rise
Since the Popular Front’s victory in the 1936 elections, a group of generals (Sanjurjo, Mola, Franco, and others) and numerous leaders and military officers began plotting an armed insurrection against the Popular Front government. General Sanjurjo was appointed as head of the uprising but died shortly afterward. The coordinator of the entire plot was General Mola, a conspirator from Pamplona. However, the coup leaders supported the establishment of a dictatorship, not a monarchy.
On July 17, the National Uprising began in Melilla, its date rushed due to the murder of Calvo Sotelo and Lieutenant Castillo. In the following days, the revolt spread throughout different areas of the Peninsula, succeeding in Galicia, Navarra, Aragon, but not in large cities or industrial centers.
The fact that the uprising did not succeed or fail miserably provoked the division of the country into two zones, and a civil war broke out that lasted for three years. Spain was divided into two areas:
- Republican zone (mining and industrial areas, with gold reserves and the support of the USSR)
- Nationalist zone (supported by Italy and Germany, and Carlist Falangist)
Military Development
The initial plan of the Nationalists was to occupy Madrid quickly and end the war. Franco took command of the troops of General Mola in Morocco and the North. Franco found himself isolated in Morocco since the fleet, faithful to the Republic, was blocking his way across the Strait and thus preventing the movement of troops to the Peninsula. However, German and Italian planes could move their troops and regular legionaries from Tetuan to Seville and Jerez. From Extremadura, they headed to Seville through the Ruta de la Plata, where they won Badajoz and Merida. On July 21, more than 20,000 Republican combatants came from Madrid in a northerly direction to stop Mola. Franco’s advance on Madrid suffered a major delay when he diverted his army for the liberation of the Alcazar of Toledo. This diversion gave the defense time to organize Madrid to withstand the siege. In October, the Provisional Government was organized in Burgos, and Generalissimo Franco was appointed Chief of the Army and the State. He then prepared a comprehensive attack on Madrid. Given the seriousness of the Spanish situation, the powers signed an agreement not to intervene, but in practice, according to the ideology or the sympathies of nations, they helped either side.
Battle of Madrid
The objective from the beginning was the capture of Madrid, but this failed due to:
- Successful defense of Madrid; the defenders popularized the slogan launched by Dolores Ibarruri (La Pasionaria): “They will not pass.”
- The distraction with the capture of Toledo.
The Battle of Madrid can be divided into four stages:
- Attack by the Casa de Campo and the University City (November 1936). When Franco arrived in Madrid in these areas, the Republican forces had come to the city (militias, international brigades). A Defense Board was formed, chaired by General Miaja, and the government moved to Valencia, fearing being caught.
- Carretera de la Coruña. Franco ordered a major offensive but failed.
- Jarama River Valley (February 1937). After twelve days of combat, it ended in a draw, with 20,000 deaths per side. The work of the International Brigades was highlighted.
Mussolini sent abundant war material and 40,000 soldiers to Spain, who made up the CTV. These were used for the first time and succeeded in the conquest of Malaga.
- Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937). The goal was to encircle Madrid. On May 8, Italian soldiers and Nationalists, supported by aviation and tanks, broke through the front. The Republican General Rojo launched a counteroffensive, with the Republican army, mixed brigades, and organized International Brigades.
On the plains of Brihuega and attacked by aircraft, the Italians withdrew, leaving much war material on the battlefield. For the Republic, the success was a great propaganda effect. Mussolini dismissed the commanding heights of the CTV.
The Battle of Madrid was a failure for the Nationalist side; the war dragged on, and Franco’s strategy shifted to taking the Cantabrian Coast. On April 26, 1937, German planes bombed Guernica in Vizcaya, a symbol of Basque nationalism. Bilbao fell in June, and the Statute of Autonomy and the Basque privileges were terminated. The next objective was Santander. To relieve the pressure, the Republic fought in the vicinity of Madrid, La Granja (Segovia), and Brunete. The battles also ended in a draw. The following month, Santander fell into the hands of the rebels.
Battle of Teruel
After the victory in the North, the Nationalist army was free. Franco thought of using it in a final assault on Madrid. The Republic, sensing this, decided on the conquest of Teruel, through General Rojo. At the end of 1937, the battle was a military success for Republican Spain, despite being a tough battle due to low temperatures. However, the Nationalist army launched a counterattack and retrieved the city.
In April 1938, the Nationalist goal was to break the Republican zone in two parts, create a corridor to the Mediterranean, and isolate Madrid, Catalonia, and Valencia.
The Republic, at this point, looked for a punchline: to group Catalonia and reassure the rest of Spain. This offense resulted in the Battle of the Ebro.
From July to November 1938, the Battle of the Ebro took place, which ended with the collapse of the Republican army. This allowed Franco to launch an offensive against Catalonia, which in early 1939 was entirely in the hands of the Nationalists. In January, the Nationalist army took Barcelona, the Statute of Autonomy was suspended, Companys was shot, and part of the Republican army went into exile. Two positions now arose on the Republican side:
- The end of the war and suffering, supported by much of the military, but they sought to negotiate peace with certain conditions and guarantees for the vanquished.
- The maintenance of the war, to connect with the future European war.
Franco’s response was not to admit any of these positions.
On March 28, 1939, Madrid was taken, and on April 1, the war ended, starting the dictatorship of Franco.
Foreign Aid to Republican Spain
The Republic received military aid from the USSR, France, and Mexico. The Republic began to be accused of being a “Red Republic” and “Marxist.” Spain paid the Soviets with the gold of the Bank of Spain, the so-called “Moscow Gold.” Human assistance came through the International Brigades, 60,000 men from 30 countries who were characterized by:
- Lack of military experience, but they were disciplined.
- Young, with communist, socialist, or liberal ideology.
- Brigades were distributed (Lincoln, Garibaldi).
Foreign Aid to Nationalist Spain
Nationalist Spain received help from Italy and Germany in terms of weaponry, raw materials, minerals. Germany sent the Condor Legion, and Italy sent the CTV. The aid was better and greater on the Nationalist side.
Consequences
Among the most prominent are:
- The end of the Republic and the establishment of a fascist dictatorship (1939-1975).
- Demographic consequences: Between 300,000 and 500,000 deaths, plus the number of Republican exiles who left through the Catalan-French border of La Junquera and also through the Levant region to France, North Africa, and Spanish America. Among the exiles were a large number of intellectuals.
- Reprisals: There were reprisals on both sides, but less on the Republican side than on the Nationalist side. Franco’s repression lasted 50 years, and there were over 100,000 retaliations. As Franco ideologically conquered, he was “cleaning.” Many also spent much of their lives in concentration camps where they were used for public works.
- Economic: 80% of infrastructure was destroyed (roads, bridges). Spain ran out of gold reserves as it was sent to Moscow. Money lost value because, without gold reserves, Spain had no foreign currency, which meant that reconstruction was difficult. With the outbreak of World War II, Spain contributed men, materials, and minerals to countries at war.