The Spanish Civil War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences
The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939
The Outbreak of the Civil War
The opposition of much of the conservative Spanish political class to the democratization and social reforms of the Second Republic led to a coup, which began on July 17, 1936.
Coup of the Civil War
On July 17, 1936, in Melilla, Colonel Yagüe, commander of the legion, took up arms against the Republic. The uprising quickly spread to the rest of the Moroccan protectorate. Most of the military garrisons in the rest of Spain joined the coup, along with civilian sectors and Carlist Falangists (requetés). On the 18th, General Franco, who had already secured the triumph of the rebellion in the Canaries, went to the Peninsula at the head of the army in Africa. In two days the rebels had already made strongholds in Pamplona, Seville, Castilla la Vieja, and part of Aragon. Casares Quiroga was replaced as prime minister by José Giral, who decided to give arms to the militias of the unions and the Popular Front parties. The uprising succeeded in virtually every inland Spain. The uprising failed where workers and leftist forces outweighed it, in the industrial areas of the Basque Country, Catalonia, Madrid, Asturias, Santander, Levante, a part of Castile, Extremadura, and Andalusia. The rebels succeeded in Seville and Zaragoza. It had to be a fast coup, a matter of a few days. But after a week, the evidence that the coup had not succeeded originated the division into two camps that were to clash in a bloody civil war.
The Consolidation of the Sides
The side of the rebels was made up of all those who had opposed the reforms of the Republic. They were supported and inspired by fascism and identified as “national” and Catholics. Among the rebels, there was no unanimity on what actions to take after the victory of the coup. The military officials said their intention was a military dictatorship that would eliminate the risk of revolution and allow the rebuilding of civil power in the form of a monarchy or republic. Royalists and CEDA mainly wanted to return to the alfonsina monarchy, the Falange tried to impose a fascist regime in the Italian style, and the Carlists hoped for the establishment of the Carlist monarchy. Those loyal to the Republic were, in fact, the most popular classes and were defined by the right as “red.” They all defended the republican legitimacy.
The Significance of the Conflict
The Spanish Civil War had a major impact internationally. The outbreak of war in Spain was seen as a confrontation between democratic and fascist forces. The Civil War was more than the old armed conflict between the dominant groups in Restoration Spain, whose instrument was the army, and emerging groups, both bourgeois and workers, who wanted to establish a democratic political system.
The Internationalization of the Civil War
The “war of Spain,” a name that became known internationally, was an event that divided the world. The world’s progressive democratic opinion was in favor of the Republic (workers’ parties and the USSR). Conservative forces of democracies (France, Great Britain) and the fascist governments (Italy and Germany) saw the rise of Franco as a brake on the spread of communism; the filofascista Portuguese regime and Catholicism were also allies of the rebels. The rebels and the Republicans turned abroad to seek support. The rebels sent agents to fascist countries. The government of the Republic asked for military and political cooperation, first to France, which also had a Popular Front government. But the leaders of democracies (France, Great Britain, USA) were extremely cautious. Britain advocated a policy of appeasement toward Nazi Germany and notified France that if Spain was involved in helping the Republic, it would not support France’s international policy under the threat of Hitler. France spearheaded the creation of a committee of non-intervention. Non-intervention policy was one of the causes of their defeat by denying the right to acquire arms to defend against an insurgency.
Foreign Aid
The existence of the Committee on Non-intervention did not prevent the two sides from receiving foreign aid. Largo Caballero’s government decided to send the Soviet Union the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain to meet the payment of the arms purchased by Venezuela. The International Brigades provided great help in troops to the republic. The rebels were most favored by foreign support. The German and Italian aid was the most important in weapons. Germany sent its air force, the Condor Legion, and Italy sent the Corpo Truppe Volontarie. Volunteers were also Portuguese and Irish.
The Republican Area
The Collapse of the Republican State
To stem the revolt, the Republican government of José Giral had to organize a military force capable of opposing the insurgents. He made the decision to deliver arms to the militias of parties and unions and decreed the creation of volunteer battalions. The power of the state suffered a near-total collapse. Councils, committees, and boards emerged dealing with columns to organize volunteers for the front, public policy, economics, etc. The committees were merged to form regional councils; these bodies met the Popular Front forces.
The Outbreak of the Social Revolution
In the territory that remained loyal to the Republic, the military uprising led to the extension of a revolutionary climate. Most of the people who at first fought with weapons against the rebels to defend the Republic were composed of peasants and workers linked to the revolutionary left organizations. The most significant social revolution was the collectivization of most industrial and agricultural property. It took control of transport, urban services, military supplies, factories, and workshops. In some cases, employers fled the outbreak of war or were arrested or killed, and workers came to the forefront of business. Other times, after taking control of companies, workers let their owners exploit them under self-management. A series of decrees gave legal cover to the industries and land seizures. In the countryside, farms were expropriated and occupied; the lands were collectivized. In the early months of the war, a spontaneous popular response broke out in the Republican zone against everything that could be related to the so-called “rebels.” They suffered persecution, killings, illegal detentions in the checas (secret prisons), looting and burning of churches, and requisition of property and private properties. Politicians were killed, such as Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera. Many of the persecuted fled abroad, hid, or went to the rebel zone. The Republicans were driven mainly by the most radical of anarcho-syndicalism (CNT-FAI) and the POUM.
The Government of Largo Caballero (Sept. 1936 – May 1937)
The Republican forces were aware of the necessity of forming a government capable of uniting efforts to win the war. Thus, in September 1936, Francisco Largo Caballero formed a new government made up of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists for the first time. Anarchists entered the cabinet. The government of the Republic decided to move to Valencia before the imminent attack on Madrid by the rebels. The draft Largo Caballero was to create a “great anti-fascist alliance” against the rebels and created the People’s Army. A series of military failures reopened the confrontation between the Republican forces, which were divided: on one hand, Republicans, Communists, and Socialists, and on the other hand, anarchists and communists of the POUM. The problems that weakened the government of Largo Caballero erupted in early May 1937 (Acts of May). The events led to a confrontation in the streets of Barcelona between militants of the CNT and the POUM. The conflict ended with the defeat of the anarchists and POUM and a strong government crisis.
Negrín’s Government (May 1937-March 1939)
The May events subtracted influence from the anarchists and strengthened positions that already had a big influence, based largely on the Soviet Union assistance provided to the Republic. Under Soviet guidance, the Spanish Communists demanded the dissolution of the POUM. Largo Caballero refused and resigned, and the President of the Republic, Manuel Azaña, ordered the formation of a new socialist government to Juan Negrín. The POUM was declared illegal. Andreu Nin, its leader, was assassinated by agents of the Soviet political police. The new government formed the Popular Front parties, without the UGT and the CNT. The new Cabinet based its policy on the priority of the military effort. Control was established on the industrial and agricultural production to put industry sources at the service of war. The seat of government moved from Valencia to Barcelona. The decision was motivated by the need to control one of the most important areas that the Republican government had. Given the difficulty of stopping the advance of Franco’s troops, the government tried to seek a negotiated end to the war. For this, Negrín proposed his famous Thirteen Points program in 1938, proposing an end to armed struggle, the permanence of the Republic, and the opening of a democratic election process. Franco’s side did not accept entering into any negotiation, and Franco made it known publicly that it would only accept an unconditional surrender. Since March 1938, life was already extremely difficult in the Republican territory. Food and supplies were lacking, and war-weariness began to spread among the population. In September 1938, the Republic received a setback when they signed the Munich Pact, in which Britain and France recognized the occupation of the Sudetenland by Hitler and bowed to Nazi expansionism. Negrín, with almost the sole support of the Communists, insisted on the necessity of military strength; he coined the slogan “Resistance is victory!”. The loss of Catalonia between January and February 1939 marked the exile of the government of the Republic. In early March, Manuel Azaña presented in Paris his resignation as president. A move from Negrín’s efforts to continue the war, the Republic’s days were numbered.
The Rebel Zone
Francisco Franco, Generalissimo
The death of General Sanjurjo, head of the coup movement, and that the insurgency gave rise to war, raised the issue of leadership in the military leadership. In Burgos, the National Defense Council was established, composed of military personnel and chaired by the oldest general, Miguel Cabanellas. The Board’s mission was to rule the occupied territory, and its first actions were to ban the activity of all political parties, suspend the Constitution, and halt agrarian reform. To conduct the war, General Francisco Franco was becoming increasingly adept. Hitler and Mussolini got to recognize him as the only valid interlocutor to negotiate their support for the uprising. On October 1, 1936, a decree was issued appointing him Chief of the State Government and Generalissimo of the Spanish Army. The National Defense Council disappeared, and a Technical Board of the State was established; the general’s headquarters moved to Salamanca.
The Creation of the Single Party. The Government of Burgos
Unlike the Republican side, there was a single military command. The rebels had prohibited, in the territory they controlled, all political parties that were part of the Popular Front. Only the Spanish Falange, the JONS, and the Traditionalist Communion (Carlist) acted as political groups. CEDA and monarchist groups were tolerated. Franco adopted a strategy of lengthening the war by which he consolidated his military leadership. Drawing on the model of the Italian and German fascist states, Franco announced the Unification Decree that created a single party, Traditionalist Spanish Falange and JONS. Franco would be the National Chief of this unique party. The new party adopted the uniform with the blue shirt of the Falange, the red beret of the Carlist, and the fascist salute with the arm raised. The new process of the Francoist state was completed in January 1938 with the formation of the first government of Franco. Franco came to be called Caudillo of Spain. The new state was inspired by fascism and defended a social model based on conservatism and Catholicism. Religious liberties were suppressed, as were political, association, and press freedoms. The status of autonomy was revoked, and the death penalty was restored. Strikes were banned, as were workers’ demands. It respected the important influence of the Catholic Church. It repealed the laws of civil marriage and divorce, established religion in education and in the army, and instituted state compensation to the clergy.
Institutionalized Repression
Construction of the Francoist state was accompanied by extreme violence and implied the annihilation of the vanquished in the occupied territories. Sometimes, relevant persons were killed, rather than for political action, for what they meant as symbols of the Republic. His intention was to impose a climate of terror that prevented any response. A portion of the thousands of executions during the war were buried in mass graves without evidence of his disappearance.
Military Operations
Progress Towards Madrid (July-November 1936)
After crossing the Strait, the African troops under Colonel Yagüe made an advance towards Madrid essential to take the capital. In August, the rebel troops, advancing from the south, took Badajoz and managed to connect in a narrow strip to the rebel zone in the North. In September, Franco decided to take a detour to Toledo, and in late October, he was already at the gates of Madrid. The conquest of the capital could be imminent. On October 29, a general mobilization was declared to save Madrid. While digging ditches, slogans were born that became legendary, such as “They shall not pass” and “Madrid, tomb of fascism.” On November 6, the Republican government moved to Valencia. Despite the air raids, the Madrid front was attacked.
Battles Around Madrid (December 1936-March 1937)
After a failed attempt to enter the capital, the rebels launched two maneuvers to isolate and surround Madrid in order to cut their communications with Valencia. The first move was the battle of Jarama in February, in which the rebels crossed the river but were stopped by the Republicans. The second maneuver was the battle of Guadalajara in March, where the Italian fascist troops, allies of Franco, suffered a spectacular defeat. It was the first high-profile Republican victory.
The Occupation of the North (April 1937-October 1937)
Given the difficulties to take Madrid, Franco decided to abandon the attack on the capital and concentrate on the north. Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country had been in Republican hands, isolated from the rest of the peninsula. The rebels controlled Navarra and San Sebastian. The main fighting took place between April and October 1937. On April 26, the Basque town of Guernica was destroyed by Nazi aviation, by order of Franco’s headquarters. This produced the first aerial bombardment in history on the civilian population. Bilbao was occupied on June 19. Franco’s troops entered Santander and, two months later, Asturias. Thus an economically important area first came into the hands of the rebels.
Progress Towards the Mediterranean (November 1937-June 1938)
In late 1937, the Republicans still relied on the possibility of winning the war. Vicente Rojo, Madrid’s defender, was placed at its head. The new Republican Army set off several offensives, the most important of which took place in Teruel, where there was a great battle that led to the Republican occupation of the city. But in February 1938, Franco’s army recaptured Teruel, and Castellón reached the Mediterranean in April. The Republican territory was divided into two zones, one of which was Catalonia, isolated from the rest. Franco could have concentrated his forces on attacking Catalonia but preferred to continue the offensive against the South.
The Battle of the Ebro and the Occupation of Catalonia (July 1938-February 1939)
The advance of rebel troops was stopped when the republican army, after receiving new weapons from Catalonia, reorganized its units and unleashed a powerful attack on the Ebro River in the province of Tarragona. The Battle of the Ebro was a major military event of the war. It began on July 25, 1938, with a Republican attack. Franco sent heavy reinforcements, including German and Italian planes, and managed to stop the attack. Then he counterattacked and advanced, occupying the south of Tarragona, and crossing the Ebro River on November 16, ending the battle. Republican forces had been defeated. Franco finally decided to take the offensive against Catalonia. On January 26, he entered Barcelona without resistance. A flood of exiles moved to the North, and the flight to France began.
The End of the War (February-April 1939)
In February 1939, the Republic had no more territory than the call center area (Madrid, La Mancha, and the Mediterranean region from the north of Valencia to Almería). The head of the Republican government, Juan Negrín, had returned from France and made one last effort to reorganize the army and resist in the Republican territory. However, in early March in Madrid, there was an uprising against the Republican government led by Colonel Sigismund Casado, responsible for defending the capital. Casado had made contact with Franco’s spy service for months to deliver the city and end the war through negotiations with Franco. Franco just accepted an unconditional surrender and forced them to surrender their weapons. On March 28, Franco’s troops entered Madrid without resistance. In the days after, it occupied the entire Mediterranean area. On April 1, Franco signed in Burgos the last part of the war: “On this day, captive and disarmed the Red Army troops reached their final national military objectives. Spanish, the war is over.”
The Effects of the War
Death, Famine, and Destruction
The war entailed misery and death for thousands of people from both sides. The first signs of shortage began in September and October 1936 in products such as wheat, meat, and coal. In 1937 rationing came to Madrid. Prices rose, and the black market spread. Malnutrition caused diseases and sometimes death. There was also a sharp decline in industrial production, due primarily to the mobilization of the male population for the front. Moreover, while the female population, especially in the Republican zone, joined the workforce, the industry’s efforts were directed mainly to the production of armaments. Moreover, the war meant the destruction of much of the infrastructure and communications. The bombing of villages and towns severely affected the civilian population.
The Displaced Population, Refugees, and Exiles
From the earliest days of the war, civilians on both sides fled the territory in which they were for fear they could suffer persecution for their political views. With the advance of Franco’s troops, large refugee movements occurred, mainly in the Republican zone. Republican refugees were concentrated especially in the Levante and Catalonia. The population of the north, isolated from the rest of the Republican zone, could only escape by sea to other countries; it was decided to give priority to children. Towards the end of the war, people in Spain and thousands of withdrawing troops were concentrated in Catalonia to cross the French border. Many of the refugees were taken by gendarmes to makeshift camps. In a few months, about half of these refugees returned to Spain. The rest began a long and painful exile.