The Spanish Civil War: Causes, Development, and Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Causes of the Conflict
The Spanish Civil War was a fratricidal conflict rooted in deep ideological and social divisions. The war erupted in 1936, with one side advocating for secularism and atheism, while the other defended Catholicism. This clash was a culmination of tensions that had been brewing since the 19th century between clericalism and traditionalism, represented by the Church, military, and landowners, and the forces of liberal capitalism and a modern industrial society.
Several factors contributed to the outbreak of the war. In 1932, a conspiracy against the Republic involved landowners, the Church hierarchy, military figures, and political sectors, including the Falange. These groups felt threatened by the Republic’s policies, particularly the reformist laws passed during its first two years. Tensions further escalated between political and traditional authorities, especially after the Popular Front’s victory.
The Military Uprising
The military uprising was orchestrated by General Emilio Mola. The plan was to swiftly seize power through a violent crackdown and arrest members of leftist parties and trade unions, which were particularly active in urban areas and among Catholic organizations. The uprising gained momentum with the support of right-wing elements within the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights (CEDA). The assassination of José Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936, in Madrid, precipitated the uprising.
The uprising began on July 17 in the Canary Islands, led by General Francisco Franco. Franco flew to Morocco, where he rallied the colonial army. Troops were then transported to the mainland, marking the start of the war.
The Extent of the Uprising and the Division of Spain
The uprising’s initial success varied across the country. It gained control in Navarre, Galicia, Aragon, and Majorca. However, in Barcelona, General Goded faced resistance from government forces and popular mobilization. The news of the uprising had a profound impact throughout Spain.
The country was effectively divided into two zones. The Republic held Madrid and key industrial and mining areas, while the insurgents controlled a significant portion of the peninsula, including the Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, and African possessions. The Republic retained control of the Civil Guard, part of the army, the air force, and the navy.
The Role of the Balearic Islands
Republican resistance in Mallorca and Ibiza was quickly suppressed. Mallorca received support from wealthy landowners, the Church, and the banker Juan March, who had been prosecuted by the Republic and offered his full support to the insurgents. Only Minorca remained under Republican control, holding strategic importance. An expedition led by Alberto Bayo was organized to retake the archipelago, but Mallorca fell under the control of Italian fascists in 1937, who established a base there and posed a threat from the sea. In February 1939, Minorca was captured by Franco’s forces.
Development of the War: A Long and Bloody Conflict
The war lasted for three years and became a war of attrition. The initial attempt by the Nationalists to swiftly capture Madrid failed. The country remained divided, with the Republicans controlling Madrid and key industrial areas, while the Nationalists held most of the territory.
The Nationalists launched offensives in four main directions: securing the Strait of Gibraltar to transport the colonial army, advancing north from Seville to link up with Mola’s forces, attacking from Navarre towards Irun and San Sebastian to isolate the industrial north, and advancing on Madrid and Toledo. Franco’s troops were halted in the Battle of Madrid, and despite receiving German and Italian support, they were unable to break through Republican defenses at Jarama and Guadalajara.
Operations in 1937 and the International Context
In 1937, Franco, with the help of German instructors, organized a general mobilization of youth for the war effort. The Republicans, on the other hand, faced challenges in maintaining a disciplined and well-equipped army. The Nationalists gained the upper hand in 1937, particularly in the north. The Condor Legion, a German air unit, played a crucial role, carrying out devastating bombing raids, including the infamous bombing of Guernica.
The Spanish Civil War became intertwined with the broader international context of the rise of fascism. While democracies like the UK promoted a policy of non-intervention, Germany and Italy actively supported Franco. The Republic received aid from the Soviet Union and Mexico. The International Brigades, composed of volunteers from various countries, fought alongside the Republicans. However, the Republic’s war effort was hampered by internal divisions and the withdrawal of Soviet support.
Life in the Rear and the Impact on the Population
The war had a devastating impact on the civilian population. The Spanish Civil War was one of the first conflicts to see the widespread use of aerial bombardment. Territories changed hands frequently, leading to reprisals and revenge against civilians perceived as supporting the opposing side. Fear and uncertainty were widespread, and many people were forced to flee their homes or go into hiding.
Both sides engaged in repression. The Nationalists targeted workers, trade unionists, journalists, teachers, and intellectuals. The Republicans persecuted members of the Catholic Church, landowners, and industrialists. Hunger was a major problem in the Republican zone, as food supplies were diverted to the front lines and transportation was disrupted by bombing.
Politics in the Republican Zone
The Republican government faced numerous challenges. Its authority was limited, and it struggled to maintain control over various factions. The government, initially led by Francisco Largo Caballero, faced internal divisions and difficulties in establishing a regular army. In 1936, four anarchists joined the government, including Federica Montseny, who introduced legislation on abortion. Caballero focused on creating a unified army.
Politics in Franco’s Zone
The death of General Sanjurjo in an airplane crash allowed Franco to consolidate his power within the Nationalist camp. He was appointed head of state and government in 1937. Franco aimed to centralize control over military operations and suppress political dissent. He merged the Falange and the Carlist Traditionalist Communion to form the FET y de las JONS, a single-party state. In 1938, Franco established his first government in Burgos. He continued to receive support from Germany, Italy, and the banker Juan March, as well as from some British companies.
The Final Phase of the War
By 1938, the Nationalists had gained a decisive military advantage. They controlled most of the territory, and their air power was superior. Franco launched an offensive to isolate Catalonia and Valencia. In April 1939, Nationalist troops entered Barcelona, and Tarragona fell soon after. The Republican army launched a desperate counteroffensive across the Ebro River in July 1938, but it ultimately failed. The defeat at the Ebro marked a turning point in the war.
Following the Munich Agreement in September 1938, which signaled the Western powers’ appeasement of Hitler, the Republic’s fate was sealed. Franco’s forces continued their advance, capturing Catalonia in early 1939. Thousands of civilians and soldiers fled into France, where they were interned in refugee camps. The fall of Catalonia was followed by the rapid collapse of the remaining Republican resistance. On April 1, 1939, Franco declared victory, ending the Spanish Civil War.
The Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War had a profound and lasting impact on Spain. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths and caused immense destruction. The Franco dictatorship, established after the war, lasted for nearly four decades. The war also had international repercussions, foreshadowing the broader conflict of World War II.