The Spanish Civil War: Conspiracy, Revolt, and Stages
The Spanish Civil War
Conspiracy and Military Revolt
The military conspiracy aimed to achieve a swift victory for the Popular Front following the February 1936 elections. Prior attempts, such as the Sanjurjada and movements led by Goded, Fanjul, and Franco, had already occurred. Civilian factions, including monarchists, Alfonsinos, Carlists, and fascists, provided auxiliary support to the conspiracy.
However, the coup of July 1936 was orchestrated solely by disgruntled military personnel. General Emilio Mola, stationed in Pamplona, a city suspected of harboring coup sympathizers, served as the strategist and mastermind. General Sanjurjo, chosen by the conspirators to lead the post-coup military directory, tragically died in a plane crash. General Franco, who would later command the rebel forces, joined the conspiracy at the eleventh hour.
The conspirators’ primary objective was to establish an authoritarian regime, ousting the legitimate government and suspending constitutional freedoms. They envisioned a brief and decisive takeover, lasting mere days, failing to anticipate any significant resistance. The Second Republic government, led by Casares Quiroga, did not take adequate measures to prevent the conflict, underestimating its potential.
The Spanish Civil War, therefore, stemmed from a poorly executed military coup and a government too weak to effectively counter it.
The Coup of 1936
The uprising commenced on July 17, 1936, in Morocco, home to Spain’s largest and most elite troops, comprised of legionnaires and native soldiers. Franco, after securing control in the Canary Islands, proceeded to Morocco to assume command of the rebellion.
Between July 18 and 19, Seville and Cadiz, crucial for landing troops from North Africa, joined the uprising. In addition to the islands, the rebel-held territories included both coasts flanking the Strait of Gibraltar, as well as Galicia, Castile and León, and Navarre.
The government-loyal areas were divided into two: the Cantabrian coast and a central region encompassing the southern plateau. The Assault Guards, military units, the Civil Guard, the navy, and naval aviation remained loyal to the Republican government. The stance of the UGT (General Union of Workers) and the CNT (National Confederation of Labor) proved critical to the success of the Republican forces.
Proceedings of the War
The war unfolded in several stages:
The War of Columns and the March Toward Madrid (1936)
This initial stage saw the participation of regular army soldiers in the rebel camp and militants in the Republican camp. The latter were supported by a few remaining professional military figures like Miaja and Vicente Rojo. The capture of Madrid became the primary objective of the rebels.
The columns commanded by Mola were halted north of the Central System by unexpected militia resistance. Consequently, Franco’s and Yagüe’s troops had greater opportunities to advance toward Madrid from the south. Thanks to air and naval support from Hitler and Mussolini, they managed to cross the Strait and progress through Extremadura, which the Republican government failed to defend effectively.
The southern columns captured Badajoz and Talavera (via the Silver Route) and relieved the rebel troops besieged in the Alcázar of Toledo.
On the northern front, General Mola’s most significant operation was the capture of Irún. This maneuver cut off the Republican Army’s access to the border with northern France and prevented reinforcements from arriving by land.
Battle of Madrid
At this stage, the conflict transformed into a war of attrition. The unexpected resistance of Madrid, besieged and bombed from all sides except for the Valencia road, was the primary cause.
The Republican government, relocated to Valencia, believed that Madrid’s fall was imminent. Madrileños interpreted this move as an abandonment. Resistance was led by a hastily formed Defense Board, which received arms and reinforcements from the Soviet Union and foreign volunteers of the International Brigades.
The Republican Army, chaired by General Miaja and with Commander Vicente Rojo as its chief strategist, repelled an initial frontal assault on the city from the west. Having failed to take Madrid swiftly, Franco opted for an encirclement operation, which resulted in three key battles:
- The Road to La Coruña: Severed Madrid’s communication with the north.
- The Jarama River: The first major modern battle of the Civil War, where the road from Valencia was attacked from the south.
- Guadalajara: An attempt to encircle Madrid from the northeast, which ended in defeat for the rebel army and its allies, the Italian troops sent by Mussolini.