The Spanish Civil War: From Coup to Dictatorship
From Coup to Civil War: In 1936, Nationalist forces launched a coup against the Second Spanish Republic (National Uprising). From Morocco, where the Spanish Army of Africa was stationed, General Francisco Franco led the insurgent forces. The Republican government’s delayed response allowed the uprising to gain momentum. The Nationalists achieved success in many areas, particularly in the interior, but faced resistance in regions with strong worker and leftist presence.
The Failure of the Insurrection in Catalonia: General Goded, tasked with leading the coup in Catalonia, faced significant opposition. Few Catalans supported the insurrection. The main conservative party, the Catalan League, remained neutral but lent support to the Nationalist cause. The Republican government, led by Lluís Companys, effectively mobilized police forces against the rebels. The mobilization of leftist parties and trade unions played a decisive role in defeating the coup. Goded surrendered, and the rebels abandoned the fight, marking a significant Republican victory.
Consolidating Camps: The Nationalist rebels were led by military figures and supported by upper and conservative classes opposed to the Republic’s reforms. They aimed to establish a military dictatorship to restore order and prevent a social revolution. The Republicans consisted of working classes, middle classes, and farmers, often labeled as “Reds.” They defended the legitimacy of the Republic, alongside some bourgeois and intellectual classes.
The Internationalization of the Civil War: The conflict gained international significance, viewed as a clash between democratic forces and fascist regimes. It became known as the “Spanish War.” Italy and Germany supported the Nationalist side, along with Catholic and Papal sympathies. Democratic and progressive parties worldwide, as well as workers’ organizations, rallied in favor of the Republic. International Brigades (anti-fascist volunteers) and the Soviet Union (providing arms) aided the Republic. However, a policy of non-intervention by Western democracies contributed to the Republic’s eventual defeat.
Outbreak of the Revolution: The Republican government armed the militias of political parties and trade unions. The traditional army and police were dissolved, replaced by volunteer battalions. Popular committees emerged, such as the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias, which organized volunteers for the front and controlled public order. The revolution led to assassinations, illegal detentions, attacks on churches and convents, and the seizure of property.
A War Economy: Collectivizations: Workers gained control and ownership of the means of production. Agrarian and industrial properties were collectivized. In August 1936, the Council of Economy was created to implement socialist economic reforms.
The Government of Largo Caballero (September 1936-May 1937): A government of Socialists, Republicans, and Communists, led by Largo Caballero, was formed in Madrid. It aimed to create an alliance between Republican, bourgeois, and worker forces to win the war. The government militarized militias and formed the People’s Army. In Catalonia, a unity government under Josep Tarradellas replaced committees with councils, rebuilt the judicial system, and reorganized the militia into the Popular Army.
The May 1937 Events: Republicans, Communists, and Socialists sought to organize a strong army, control collectivizations, and rebuild the state. Anarchists and the POUM resisted integrating their militias into the regular army and insisted on collectivization. On May 3, 1937, anarchists occupied the telephone exchange in Barcelona. The government’s attempt to evict them led to widespread clashes, lasting nearly a week and resulting in anarchist losses.
The Negrín Government (May 1937-March 1939): Following the May events, a new Socialist government under Juan Negrín was formed, prioritizing political and military centralization. Relations between the Catalan government and Negrín remained strained. By 1938, the Republic faced food shortages, military setbacks, and war-weariness. Negrín’s Thirteen Points peace proposal was rejected by Franco. The Munich Agreement further weakened the Republic’s position.
Franco, Caudillo of Spain: On July 24, 1936, the National Defense Junta was established in Burgos. Political parties were banned, the Constitution suspended, and land reform halted. On September 30, Franco was named Head of State. The Decree of Unification in April 1937 merged the Carlists and Falangists into the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, with Franco as its leader. The new government, inspired by fascism, abolished Republican legislation, restored capital punishment, suppressed freedoms, and revoked autonomy statutes. A systematic repression targeted suspected leftist sympathizers.
The Battle for Madrid (July 1936-March 1937): Madrid became a key target. Colonel Yagüe took Badajoz in August. Franco advanced towards Madrid. The city resisted thanks to the International Brigades, Soviet tanks, and Catalan volunteers. The Battles of Jarama and Guadalajara, aimed at encircling Madrid, failed.
The Northern Campaign (April-October 1937): Nationalist forces shifted their focus to the north. The bombing of Guernica on April 26 became a symbol of the war’s brutality.
The Arrival in the Mediterranean (November 1937-1938): The Republicans reorganized their army under General Vicente Rojo. They briefly occupied Teruel, but Franco retook the city and launched the Aragon Offensive, dividing Republican territory.
The Catalan Offensive (July 1938-February 1939): The Battle of the Ebro, a Republican offensive, lasted three months but ultimately failed. Franco advanced into Catalonia.
The End of the War (February-April 1939): The Republic’s remaining territory dwindled. The Defense Council of Madrid sought peace, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28, Nationalist troops entered Madrid. Franco declared victory on April 1, 1939, marking the end of the Spanish Civil War.