The Spanish Civil War: International Dimensions and Domestic Evolution
The Spanish Civil War: An International Conflict
The Spanish Civil War was not merely a domestic affair; it held international significance, foreshadowing the global conflict between democracy and fascism that would become World War II. While some nations viewed it as a secondary conflict, others actively intervened, providing support to both sides.
Foreign Involvement
The Nationalist faction, led by General Franco, received support from Germany and Italy. Germany’s Condor Legion, notorious for the bombing of Guernica, provided crucial air power and technical expertise. Italy contributed approximately 20,000 volunteers, participating in key battles such as Malaga and Guadalajara. Portugal offered diplomatic aid and volunteers. The Catholic Church also lent its support to the Nationalists, with 48 deputies signing a declaration of adherence to Franco in July 1937, followed by Pope Pius XII’s recognition of the regime a year later.
The Republican side received support from the Soviet Union, which provided technicians, aircraft, and other weaponry. Spain’s gold reserves were sent to Moscow to pay for this aid, although it later proved insufficient. Mexico offered diplomatic support and food supplies. Great Britain and France, fearing a communist revolution in Spain, adopted a policy of non-intervention, forming a Non-Intervention Committee. The United States grappled with the issue of companies like Texaco and Ford supplying gasoline to the Nationalist side.
From across the globe, volunteers formed the International Brigades, numbering around 60,000, to fight for the Republic.
Domestic Impact
The war ravaged Spain’s infrastructure, destroying buildings, railways, and bridges. Agricultural production decreased by 20%, and industrial output by 30%. The human cost was immense, with an estimated 300,000 casualties, including both soldiers and civilians. As in many civil wars, personal rivalries and vendettas fueled the violence.
Nationalist forces, upon conquering cities, targeted left-wing individuals, union members, party officials, teachers, and intellectuals, including the renowned writer Federico García Lorca. Republicans also carried out executions of suspected Nationalist sympathizers and religious figures. Notable atrocities include the Badajoz massacre, where approximately 4,000 people were killed after the city fell to Franco’s forces, and the Paracuellos executions by Republicans. Even after the war’s end, General Franco ordered numerous executions, estimated between 18,000 and 50,000, and purged the judiciary.
Evolution of the Two Zones
The Republican Zone
At the outbreak of the military uprising, Manuel Azaña was President of the Republic, and Casares Quiroga, a left-leaning Galician Republican, served as Prime Minister. Quiroga maintained a passive stance, refusing to arm the populace, fearing the transfer of power to workers’ parties and unions. This led to a dual power structure, with the government on one side and workers’ organizations on the other.
In September, Largo Caballero, Secretary General of the UGT (General Union of Workers), attempted to restore the central government’s authority and create a unified army. The government relocated to Valencia, leaving Madrid under the defense junta of General Miaja. This move aimed to consolidate power, but created conflict in Catalonia, where the Generalitat (the autonomous government) clashed with the Antifascist Militias Committee, which controlled businesses, services, and armed militias. The committee, comprised of anarchists and the POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification), resisted dissolution, requiring army intervention.
Largo Caballero resigned after refusing to legalize the POUM, a demand of the Communists. Juan Negrín, a Socialist and medical professor, succeeded him. Negrín accepted collaboration with the Communists and anarchists due to the support provided by the Soviet Union. Two strategies emerged: waiting for the outbreak of World War II, anticipating democratic support for the Republic, or negotiating an honorable peace. Negrín sided with the Communists, but the Munich Conference, where democracies appeased Hitler, thwarted this approach.
The Nationalist Zone
In the Nationalist zone, a Defense Junta, chaired by General Cabanellas, the highest-ranking military officer, formed the government. Early decrees included banning political parties and trade unions, imposing strict press censorship, and removing Republican officials from public office. General Sanjurjo, initially designated as the Nationalist leader, died in a plane crash in Lisbon.
The Asturias Revolution (1934)
The Asturias Revolution, a precursor to the Civil War, erupted in 1934. Socialists, along with monarchists and communists, called a general strike in response to the inclusion of three CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups) ministers in the government. The strike largely failed except in Asturias, where socialists, anarchists, and communists formed the Regional Alliance of Workers, seizing control of the region.
In Catalonia, Lluís Companys proclaimed a Catalan State within a federal Spanish Republic. However, the army quickly suppressed the movement, and the government suspended Catalan autonomy. To quell the Asturian uprising, the government deployed General Franco and troops from Spanish Morocco, resulting in thousands of revolutionary deaths and 3,000 arrests. Harsh sentences, including death penalties, were imposed, although some prominent leaders were pardoned.