The Spanish Civil War: Key Events and Analysis
The Spanish Civil War
Military Developments
Phase 1: Initial Stages (Until December 1936)
The insurgents’ primary goal was to capture Madrid. With Italian support, they mobilized troops from Africa and advanced towards the capital. However, Madrid’s robust defense halted their progress, prompting the Republican government to relocate to Valencia. The Republic secured control of the north, from Galicia to the Basque Country, encountering significant resistance in Asturias. Simultaneously, Republican forces attempted an advance from Catalonia into Aragon.
Phase 2: Key Battles (January 1937-November 1938)
Renewed attempts to conquer Madrid through flanking maneuvers in the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara failed. Franco then shifted focus to Republican-held Andalusia, successfully capturing the region. General Mola secured the industrial north—crucial for resource control—following the bombing of Guernica, and the subsequent capture of Bilbao, the Basque Country, and Asturias. The Teruel offensive also resulted in Francoist control. The Republican government then moved to Barcelona. From April to July 1938, the brutal Battle of the Ebro unfolded, a war of attrition between the two armies. Franco ultimately broke through the Republican front and advanced into Catalonia, effectively dividing the Republican zone.
Phase 3: Final Stages (December 1938 – April 1, 1939)
With Catalonia’s fall in December 1938, Republican, Catalan, and Basque forces fled to France. Following Azaña’s resignation as President and failed peace negotiations (Franco demanded unconditional surrender), Madrid was occupied, and the remaining Republican cities surrendered without resistance.
Political Developments
Republican Zone
Initial displays of popular power, including collectivized communes and land redistribution, were eventually superseded by the government’s authority. José Giral led the government until September 1936, followed by Largo Caballero, who attempted to form a difficult left-wing unity government. Clashes between leftist factions in Barcelona led to his dismissal and the appointment of Juan Negrín, whose policy focused on resistance, strengthening the state, and organizing the army, hoping that the outbreak of global war would favor the Republic.
Nationalist Zone
From his appointment as head of state and generalissimo in October 1936, Franco held absolute power. Early decrees by the State Technical Board, the governing body, reversed Republican reforms (land, autonomy, education) and outlawed all parties except the Falange and Carlists. In April 1937, Franco merged the Falange, Carlists, CEDA, and others into a single party: the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), also known as the National Movement. This consolidated support from the Falange, Carlists (who provided tradition and Catholicism), and monarchist conservatives. The Church also backed the regime, with some viewing the uprising as a “Christian crusade.”
Causes of the War
Immediate Causes
- The tense climate during the Popular Front government, marked by violence, strikes, land occupations, attacks on churches, and political attacks by right-wing (Falange, monarchists) and left-wing (socialists, communists, anarchists) groups. The murder of monarchist deputy José Calvo Sotelo, in retaliation for the murder of assault guard lieutenant José del Castillo, had a significant impact.
- Increased ideological radicalization on both the right (the Falange’s authoritarian alternative) and the left (the PSOE’s social revolution and the CNT’s radicalism), reflected throughout society.
- The military’s coup intentions: conspiracies against the Second Republic existed from the outset (Sanjurjo, 1932). Attempts to sideline less loyal military personnel were followed by planned insurrections from 1936. The coup orchestrated by Sanjurjo and Mola, with support from landowners and financiers, triggered the Civil War.
The Uprising and its Aftermath
- July 17, 1936: The insurrection began in Melilla. Franco flew to Morocco to command the African army.
- July 18, 1936: Queipo de Llano rose in Seville. General Mola and others declared a state of war across Spain. Rebel leaders executed soldiers and civilians loyal to the Republic.
- The uprising initially succeeded in rural areas (Castile, Aragon, Galicia, Navarra, Álava, northern Extremadura, and western Andalusia), as well as Mallorca, Ibiza, the Canary Islands, and Morocco.
- Areas loyal to the Republic included urban and industrial centers.
- The Republic’s initial response involved spontaneous local and provincial committees to manage supplies and train militias. The government experienced a lack of control in the first three days, with three presidents (Casares Quiroga, Martínez Barrio, José Giral). Popular power also led to abuses (murders). With the military largely gone, militias took over the war effort.
- The ensuing civil war was longer than anticipated, accompanied by revolution, reaction, and political violence. World opinion largely favored the Republic against the rebels, with the exception of Germany and Italy.