The Spanish Civil War: Military Operations and Key Battles
Military Operations
The Spanish Civil War’s military operations can be broadly divided into five stages:
A) The Beginnings: Progress Towards Madrid
The military operations began swiftly. African troops (Legionaries and regulars) crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and under the leadership of Yagüe, columns marched towards Madrid to connect with the rebel zone in the north of the peninsula. Franco arrived in Toledo in September and October of 1936. The rebels quickly seized control of Western Andalusia and Extremadura, where the brutal repression in Badajoz, later known as “The Massacre of Badajoz”, became a grim highlight. The advance towards Madrid was temporarily halted at the end of September in Toledo, where rebels “liberated” civilians and military personnel who had sought refuge in the Alcázar. This event, known as the “Liberation of the Alcázar of Toledo”, became a cornerstone of Francoist mythology. On October 29th, a general mobilization was decreed to defend Madrid under popular slogans like “No Pasarán!” (They Shall Not Pass!) and “Madrid, the Tomb of Fascism.” On November 6th, the government relocated to Valencia, leaving Madrid in the hands of the Defense Board (led by General Miaja) and the Communist commander. The heroic resistance of the people of Madrid, bolstered by volunteers like the anarchist Durruti Column, successfully held the city until January, when reinforcements from the International Brigades arrived. Madrid became an international symbol of resistance against fascism. Simultaneously, rebel columns from the north advanced towards Madrid through the Guadarrama mountains, establishing one of the first major fronts of the war. The conflict wasn’t solely a military affair; numerous volunteers joined both sides. Young fascists formed “Falange flags” and placed themselves under the command of the rebel military. However, the militias defending against the fascist uprising didn’t always adhere to the Republican government’s orders. The fascist army possessed a unified and strong discipline from the outset, while the Republican army suffered from a lack of coordination for months. Repression and extermination of the enemy in the rearguard were commonplace during the early months of the coup. Violence erupted uncontrollably, taking on the character of “cleansing” in the rebel zone, where the state ceased to function. Violence in Republican areas was more selective, and the Republican government attempted to control it from the start, never supporting it, in stark contrast to the permissiveness and encouragement practiced by the fascist authorities.
B) Battles Around Madrid and Occupation of the North
This stage involved the reorganization of both armies, particularly the Republican army, which faced the need to unify its troops for greater effectiveness. This led to the militarization or dissolution of many militias. After the failed attempt to enter Madrid, the rebels aimed to isolate the capital from the east, along the road to Valencia. February 1937 witnessed the Battle of Jarama, one of the fiercest of the war. Málaga was captured, with German aircraft bombing civilians fleeing along the road to Almería. In March 1937, the Battle of Guadalajara resulted in the first Republican victory, featuring a spectacular Italian defeat. Franco then shifted his strategy to conquer northern Spain. The Cantabrian coast fell from east to west between April and October 1937: Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya, Santander, Asturias. On April 26, 1937, Guernica was bombed on the express orders of General Franco’s headquarters, causing international outrage. In the summer, the Republic launched offensives near Madrid (Brunete) and Zaragoza (Belchite) to relieve pressure on the northern front. Franco’s troops managed to control the industrial and mining areas, ensuring their ability to sustain a prolonged war. Mass exile began for those who couldn’t escape.
C) Progress Towards the Mediterranean
By the end of 1937, the Republican army had been restructured under the leadership of the Communist Party, the staunch defender of Madrid. The aim was to seize the initiative. Teruel was occupied by Republicans in January 1938 but lost in February. Franco launched a campaign through Aragon, reaching Castellón in April 1938, dividing Republican territory into two parts.
D) Battle of the Ebro
The Battle of the Ebro was the largest military event of the war, resulting in over a hundred thousand deaths. On June 25, 1938, the Republicans launched an offensive, crossing the Ebro River and penetrating over 25 kilometers. They captured Gandesa, which they held for several months. However, Franco, supported by German aircraft, prevented further advances. In November, Republican troops were forced to retreat across the river. The rebels occupied the south of Tarragona. Franco then initiated the final offensive against Catalonia. On January 26, 1939, Barcelona fell with little resistance. The Republican government, which had been in the city since October 1937, fled to France, along with the Republican Parliament, the Catalan government, and the Basque government. Thousands of exiles (500,000) crossed the Pyrenees on foot under harsh conditions.
E) End of the War
By February 1939, the Republican government controlled Madrid and the Mediterranean coast from Valencia to Almería. Prime Minister Negrín, supported by the Communists, intended to continue the war, hoping for international developments and the possible outbreak of war in Europe, which they believed would decisively influence the situation in Spain. In late February, England and France recognized Franco’s government. In March, President Azaña, in exile, resigned. In Madrid, Colonel Segismundo Casado, head of the capital’s defense, led an uprising against the Republican government, aiming to counter the influence of the Communists and negotiate with Franco. The uprising began on March 5th, under the pretext that Negrín would appoint only communist officers to the army. Casado was supported by Besteiro (PSOE) and part of the UGT (trade union). They established the Defense Junta of Madrid to negotiate peace independently of the legitimate Republican government. However, Franco rejected any negotiation and demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28th, he entered Madrid. Days later, the entire Mediterranean area was occupied. On April 1, 1939, Franco signed the last war report, refusing any attempt at a deal or negotiation. The victors never considered the possibility of reconciliation.
ty of reconciliation.