The Spanish Civil War: Political & International Conflict, Causes & Consequences
The Spanish Civil War: Political and International Conflict
The Outbreak of the War
The Spanish Civil War began on July 17, 1936, following a coup against the Second Spanish Republic. This period in Europe was marked by significant international tension, preceding the outbreak of World War II. Mussolini’s Italy and Hitler’s Germany, both in power, rejected democracy, parliamentary systems, human rights, and economic liberalism. Nazi Germany’s territorial expansion in Europe was met with appeasement policies from France and Britain.
Meanwhile, Stalin’s Soviet Union advocated for popular fronts in Europe, urging collaboration between Communists, Socialists, and other leftist parties to counter the rise of fascism and Nazism. The Popular Front was the governing coalition in Spain when the war erupted.
Internationalization of the Conflict
The conflict quickly gained an international dimension. The rebels, aligned with fascist and Nazi ideologies, received military aid from Germany and Italy. German air support proved crucial in transporting Franco’s army from Morocco to Spain. Conversely, the Republican government, despite international recognition, faced difficulties acquiring weapons from other countries.
The French government, under Léon Blum, hesitated before opting to ban arms supplies to Spain in August 1936. The British Conservative government opposed supporting the Spanish Left, and Hitler, not wanting to provoke conflict, remained neutral.
The Non-Intervention Agreement and its Limitations
European powers sought to prevent the Spanish Civil War from escalating into a larger conflict. On August 1, 1936, France proposed an “Agreement of Non-Intervention in Spain,” which major European countries signed. In September 1936, the Non-Intervention Committee was established in London to monitor compliance. However, the Committee’s effectiveness was limited due to the lack of punitive measures for violations, and both sides continued to receive military and logistical support from other nations.
Foreign Involvement
Stalin provided arms to the Spanish Republic until August 1937, crucial in defending Madrid against Franco’s forces. The Republic used its gold reserves (the “Moscow gold”) to pay for this assistance. To counter Soviet support, Hitler sent the Condor Legion, a combat air unit, which bombed the Basque town of Guernica in April 1937, causing numerous civilian casualties and generating international outrage.
Italy sent troops (around 50,000) to fight alongside the Nationalist forces. Their intervention was decisive in the conquest of Malaga, attacks northeast of Madrid, and the capture of Santander. U.S. companies sold oil and vehicles to the rebels. Portugal allowed the transit of arms for Franco’s army across its border, contributing to his advance in Extremadura.
The Role of the International Brigades
The International Brigades comprised anti-fascist volunteers who fought alongside the Republic. While not all were Communists, they were recruited by the Communist International from various countries, with the largest contingents coming from France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Britain, and the United States. Numbering around 40,000, they played a significant role in defending Madrid and in the battles of Jarama and Teruel. They left Spain in September 1938.
The Aftermath of the War
Franco’s Victory and Repression
The Spanish Civil War ended on April 1, 1939, with the victory of the Nationalist forces, ushering in the Franco dictatorship. General Franco consolidated all powers. The war resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths (estimated at 500,000) and a similar number of political exiles, including many prominent intellectuals. During the conflict, “war children” were evacuated abroad, but the major exodus occurred in January and February 1939 after the fall of Catalonia. The war left a deep fracture in Spanish society between victors and vanquished, with generations marked by the suffering of war and subsequent repression.
The victors initiated a violent crackdown aimed at revenge and eliminating those deemed enemies of Spain, including those who had supported the Republic. The Franco regime enacted laws such as the Law on Repression of Freemasonry and Communism, the State Security Law, and the Law of Political Responsibilities. Trials were far from fair, with executions, lengthy prison sentences, and police torture characterizing the brutal repression of the early Franco regime.
Economic Devastation
The war caused a severe economic catastrophe. Per capita income did not recover to its 1936 level until the 1950s. The country’s industrial base was destroyed, leading to a predominantly agricultural economy in the 1940s. Hundreds of thousands of homes were destroyed, external debt increased, and there were significant losses in infrastructure and transport. Shortages of food and essential goods were common.
The Republic in Exile
After the war, the Spanish Republic in exile continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of Spain by some nations, including Mexico. This representation was maintained between 1939 and 1977. The seat of the government in exile was initially in Mexico City before moving to Paris on February 8, 1946.