The Spanish Civil War: Uprising, Conflict, and Repression
The Military Uprising and Outbreak of War
The Spanish Civil War erupted after a military coup launched in Melilla on July 17, 1936. The uprising swiftly gained control in Spanish Morocco. General Mola (Pamplona) was the mastermind, while General Franco traveled from the Canary Islands to Morocco to lead the powerful African army. General Sanjurjo, another key organizer, died in a plane crash on July 21. A National Defense Board, chaired by Cabanellas, was formed in Burgos to manage the Nationalist military operations. Many civilians in rebel areas (Falangists and Carlists) received arms.
The Development of the Conflict
The rebels (Nationalists) secured control in Galicia, Northern Plateau, Cáceres, Álava, Navarra, parts of Aragon, Seville, Mallorca, and the Canary Islands. The Navy and Air Force remained loyal to the Republic. Most Catholics fervently supported Franco. On the Republican side, Casares Quiroga resigned on July 18, and José Giral of the Republican Left became Prime Minister. Giral armed civilians. The uprising failed in Madrid and Barcelona. In the Republican zone, suspicion fell upon military loyal to the Republic, while armed militants controlled the streets.
The Workers’ Revolution
A workers’ revolution followed the uprising in the Republican zone. Republican laws and institutions lost their effectiveness, as labor organizations took control of local councils, imposed land collectivization, formed militias, and established their own prisons. Two models emerged within the Republican side: the CNT-FAI and POUM favored immediate collectivization, while the PSOE and PCE prioritized restoring order and centralizing government control, respecting small and medium landowners. The PNV, despite being conservative and Catholic, supported the Republic due to its autonomy claim. In October 1936, the Basque Statute was approved, and Aguirre became Prime Minister.
Unity Government and Largo Caballero
A unity government formed under Socialist Largo Caballero, including ministers from PSOE, PCE, Republican Left, and Basque/Catalan nationalist groups. In November, four anarchist leaders, including Federica Montseny (Spain’s first female minister), joined. The government relocated to Valencia due to the imminent threat to Madrid. Largo Caballero focused on restoring central government authority, unifying the army, and securing foreign aid.
The War’s Progression
The rebels aimed for a swift victory, prioritizing Madrid’s capture. Republican militants halted Mola’s advance from the Northern Plateau and Navarre during the summer of 1936. From the south, Franco advanced towards Madrid through Extremadura after airlifting troops from Africa. Talavera fell in September, delaying Franco’s advance when he chose to liberate the Alcázar of Toledo, a propaganda victory. Mola captured Irun, isolating the Cantabrian zone from France.
Franco’s Leadership and the Northern Front
On October 1, 1936, Franco became Chief of the Spanish government, later recognized by Italy and Germany. Serrano Suñer was the most influential minister in his authoritarian government. The Falange grew rapidly despite its leader, José Antonio Primo de Rivera’s, execution. In April 1937, all pro-uprising political forces merged into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and JONS. After failing to take Madrid, Franco adopted a war of attrition, focusing on the Northern front. The conquest of Biscay, Santander, and Asturias provided valuable industrial and mining resources. Republicans launched attacks in Brunete and Belchite to divert Nationalist forces, but the entire Northern front fell by October 1937.
Republican Tensions and the Fall of Catalonia
Tensions escalated within the Republic in 1937. In May, conflict erupted in Catalonia between supporters of the workers’ revolution (anarchists) and those advocating state authority (PSUC and Esquerra). Clashes occurred when the government sent troops to control the Telefónica headquarters (seized by the CNT). POUM leaders were arrested, and its leader, Andrés Nin, was assassinated. Largo Caballero resigned, succeeded by Juan Negrín, increasing PCE influence and discrediting the CNT. The Republicans attacked Teruel in December 1937 to prevent Franco from advancing on Madrid. The Nationalists recaptured the city. In April 1938, Franco reached the Mediterranean, dividing Republican territory. The Republicans’ Ebro River offensive was repelled by Nationalist counterattacks. Franco’s advance into Catalonia was swift, reaching the French border in February 1939, causing 500,000 Spaniards to flee to France.
The End of the War and Repression
Azaña resigned as president, but Negrín returned, proposing continued resistance, hoping the impending world war would bring allies. Colonel Casado opposed this, leading to fighting in Madrid. Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28, 1939, Nationalist troops entered Madrid, ending the war on April 1. Franco’s personal dictatorship lasted until his death in 1975. Violence and repression were rampant on both sides throughout the war, often involving extrajudicial killings. The paseos and sacas were common. Notable atrocities included the Paracuellos del Jarama (Republican side) and Badajoz and Málaga (Nationalist side). Employers, right-wing militants, and church groups were persecuted by Republicans.