The Spanish Civil War: Uprising, Conflict & Internationalization
Unit 17: The Spanish Civil War (I)
1. The Military Uprising
The military uprising of July 1936 marked the beginning of a nearly three-year civil war. The coup failed to swiftly overthrow the Republic due to the divided army and armed resistance from Republican sympathizers. Conversely, Republican forces also failed to defeat the rebels. The fronts stabilized, and the war began. Beyond the primary instigators (General Mola, Sanjurjo), the conspiracy involved members of the bourgeoisie, business figures, and Juan March. The Church framed the war as a crusade between Christian civilization (rebels) and atheistic materialism (Republicans).
At the war’s outset, Moroccan and agrarian Spain, along with the Canary Islands (excluding Minorca), supported the uprising. Spain’s industrial and economic centers, like the Mediterranean region, remained loyal to the Republic. However, unique situations arose within these areas:
- Antagonistic behaviors emerged in cohesive territories like the Basque Country, where Gipuzkoa and Vizcaya sided with the Republic, while Álava joined the rebels. Navarre actively and massively supported the insurgents.
- Urban populations in politically opposed cities displayed contrasting behaviors. Oviedo, an isolated Republican stronghold, resisted for fourteen months before falling in October 1937. Madrid, a Republican peninsula amidst rebel territory, resisted for thirty-two and a half months until March 1939.
2. The Conduct of War
The War of Movement
General Mola advanced on Madrid from the north, while Franco advanced from the south. Mola, after securing Navarre and Gipuzkoa, was halted in the Central Mountains by Republican militias. Franco, aided by German and Italian aircraft, secured the Strait of Gibraltar, controlled western Andalusia and Extremadura, relieved the siege of Toledo, and advanced on Madrid, where he was also stopped. The Battle of Madrid, a Republican victory with the International Brigades’ involvement, marked the end of this phase.
Trench Warfare
After the Madrid setback, Franco focused on the industrial north. Bilbao fell in June 1937, followed by Santander in August. Reinforced with troops and aircraft, Franco broke through Republican defenses in Asturias, taking Gijón in October 1937. This phase saw major battles: Teruel (initially Republican, then Francoist), which allowed Franco to reach the Mediterranean; and the Ebro, a Republican attempt to prevent Valencia’s capture, resulting in a Francoist victory after four months of fighting.
Return to Guerrilla Warfare
The Ebro victory gave Franco control of the remaining Republican territory. Catalonia fell in January 1939, with nearly half a million people fleeing to France. Madrid fell two months later, facilitated by internal Republican struggles (Casado coup). On March 28, 1939, the rebels occupied Madrid. Franco declared April 1st “Victory Day.” Five months later, World War II began.
Consequences of War
Beyond physical destruction, the war resulted in 424,000 casualties (214,000 deaths, 210,000 exiles). Around 8,000 Republican exiles in France were captured by the Nazis, with over 5,000 perishing in death camps. An estimated 55,000-60,000 were murdered in the Republican zone (including clergy and soldiers), and 90,000 in the Francoist zone (primarily workers and teachers). Republican efforts to curb violence were not replicated by the Falangists in the rebel zone.
3. Internationalization of the Conflict
Despite democratic countries’ sympathy for the Republic, their governments remained neutral, aiming to contain the conflict. Britain, seeking to avoid a global war, sponsored the Non-Intervention Committee, which aimed to prevent foreign aid to the belligerents. However, Italy and Germany aided the rebels. The Republic received support from the Soviet Union and international volunteers (International Brigades). Journalists, writers, and artists brought cosmopolitanism to Republican cities, contrasting with the more austere atmosphere of Francoist cities.