The Spanish Conquest of America: Impact and Consequences
The Conquest of America
The conquest of America unfolded in two significant phases:
First Phase: Hernán Cortés and the Aztecs
The initial phase was spearheaded by Hernán Cortés. The Spanish Crown took possession of the conquered lands, a move that sparked considerable controversy. Cortés ventured into Aztec territory, leveraging military dominance to seize their wealth and hold the emperor hostage. The Aztecs resisted Spanish rule, but Cortés triumphed in the Battle of Otumba in 1520, claiming a vast territory known as New Spain. By 1522, the entire central Mexican plateau was under Spanish control, followed by the subjugation of the Maya civilization in the Yucatán Peninsula. In 1524, Cortés departed Mexico to explore the rainforests of Honduras.
Second Phase: Francisco Pizarro and the Incas
The second phase, led by Francisco Pizarro in 1531, commenced with his expedition from Panama to the coasts of Ecuador. This marked the beginning of the conquest of the Inca Empire, encompassing present-day Peru, Ecuador, and parts of Bolivia. The Inca Empire’s dominion ended with the capture of Cuzco, its capital city.
Colonial Organization and Exploitation of Indigenous Peoples
The conquered lands were integrated into the Crown of Castile, which had financed the initial discovery and colonization efforts. The Crown maintained a monopoly over immigration and trade.
Two viceroyalties were established: New Spain in the north, encompassing Central America and the Caribbean islands, and Peru in the south, which included South America down to Patagonia.
Specific legislation, known as the Laws of the Indies, was developed to govern the new territories. These territories significantly increased revenue for Castile and, particularly, for the Crown, which controlled trade. Gold and silver were the most valuable resources extracted from America.
Although the indigenous peoples were nominally free, they were subjected to exploitation in practice.
Economic and Social Impact
From the sixteenth century onward, significant trade developed with the Americas. Castile supplied wheat, wine, oil, cattle, clothing, and weapons. In return, America provided gold, silver, and previously unknown products such as corn, potatoes, peanuts, cocoa, and tobacco. Seville served as the primary port for all ships traveling to and from America. In 1503, the Crown established the Casa de Contratación of Seville to regulate the flow of people and goods. American voyages were conducted by fleets of ships for mutual protection, with two expeditions per year to guard against pirates and rival European powers.
The influx of silver and gold into Europe led to increased prices in Castile. This inflation, coupled with stagnant production, resulted in an economic crisis. The Crown rapidly depleted its newfound wealth.
Consequences for Indigenous Peoples
The consequences of the conquest were devastating for the indigenous populations. In the Antilles, most of the inhabitants were decimated. This led to an increase in the black slave trade from Africa, controlled by the Portuguese and Dutch.
One of the primary causes of this demographic collapse was disease, to which the indigenous peoples had no immunity. Harsh working conditions and heavy taxation further contributed to their decline, and they were stripped of their lands.
The indigenous peoples were often subjugated with minimal resistance, as they sometimes believed the colonizers were successors to their gods. The population consisted of Creoles (descendants of Spaniards), Mestizos (descendants of Europeans and natives), and Mulattos (descendants of Europeans and Black Africans).