The Spanish Empire: Rise and Fall of the Habsburgs
The Empire of the Habsburgs
The Universal Empire: Charles I
Charles I inherited a vast empire: Austria from his paternal grandfather, the Netherlands and Franche-Comte from his paternal grandmother, the Crown of Aragon (with Sicily, Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Naples) from his maternal grandfather, and Castile (and territories in Latin America) from his maternal grandmother.
Internal Problems
Growing discontent in Castile, caused by factors including the presence of foreigners in senior political positions, led to the uprising of major Castilian cities in 1520. Magistrates were expelled from office in these areas, and the movement was renamed the Revolt of the Comuneros. This movement created the Holy Assembly, which presented a series of complaints to the king. Charles returned to Spain, learned Castilian, excluded foreigners from political office, minimized taxes, gave the Courts a greater role, and limited the export of wool to Flanders (which had been hindering the development of the textile industry in Castile).
Farmers joined the conflict, turning it into an anti-seigneurial rebellion. However, the nobility eventually joined forces with the king and defeated the rebels at Villalar (1521). The leaders of the Revolt of the Comuneros (Bravo, Padilla, and Maldonado) were imprisoned and executed. After this defeat, Toledo held out for a few months but finally surrendered. The consequences were severe: the innovative objectives of the bourgeoisie were thwarted, and the alliance between the monarchy and the nobility ensured that Castile remained very conservative.
A second conflict faced by Charles I arose in the Crown of Aragon in 1519. The craft guilds of Valencia asked the king for permission to recruit militias (the Germania) to defend against Barbary piracy. However, due to widespread dissatisfaction, they rose up almost simultaneously with the communities of Castile. They also met in a Board and proposed reducing the privileges of the nobility. This conflict also radicalized, reaching open rebellion when the wealthy fled the cities due to a plague outbreak. Unlike the Castilian conflict, this was a class conflict. However, it ended like that of Castile, with the monarchy’s alliance with the nobility and the defeat of the Germanies.
External Problems
Initially, the French attacked Spain but were defeated at the Battle of Pavia. Later, the French declared war on Charles I again, this time allied with the Turks. However, Charles I allied with England and defeated them again, also incorporating Tunis. From 1545, Charles I faced the Protestants within his empire. He won at Mühlberg in 1547, but they eventually received support from the French. He negotiated the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which acknowledged the breakdown of the church and the existence of two religions in his territory, although subjects had to follow the same religion as their prince.
The Hispanic Empire: Philip II (Starts with the Absolute Monarchy)
The Government of Philip II
Philip II reigned over a vast empire in which the American colonies achieved their maximum splendor. He accentuated the power of the monarchy and centralization. The courts were not summoned, and all decisions came from the king, who was aided by officials (bureaucracy). Philip II established a large system of boards with advisory functions.
Defense of Catholic Orthodoxy
Philip II embraced the spirit of the Counter-Reformation and its fight against Protestantism. To prevent its spread in Spain, he passed laws prohibiting the importation of books or studying abroad. He empowered the Inquisition, which held autos-da-fé to try suspected religious deviants. The most serious problem was the persecution of the Moriscos of Granada, which triggered the Revolt of the Alpujarras.
Foreign Policy
To maintain Catholicism and political hegemony, Philip II:
- Continued the war with the French.
- Organized a fleet against the Turks.
- Sent the Armada (fleet) against England.
- Faced the revolt of Flanders, caused by unhappiness with taxes and the spread of Calvinism, which turned into a rebellion.
- Annexed Portugal as a result of intermarriage.
Economy and Society in the Sixteenth Century Hispanic World
The Arrival of Silver and Gold
The massive influx of silver and gold could have improved economic and social conditions, but it did not. The entry of silver caused a rise in prices, which lowered the purchasing power of the middle classes (gold and silver were only for nobles and merchants, who only accepted those currencies. The common people had only bronze or copper coins).
The Economy
The demand for agricultural products could hardly be met by the production of the Hispanic kingdoms. Although some farmers went into debt to acquire new land, most land remained in the hands of the nobility and clergy, who dedicated it to livestock. The cottage industry, especially textiles, also saw increased demand for products, but the policy favored exporters of wool due to the taxes that the crown received from the product’s export. Trade was the sector that developed the most. This commercial growth centered on the cities of Castile and some ports such as Seville.
The Demography
The population increased considerably. The urban population was sparse, except in some cities.
The Society
To reward the bourgeoisie with wealth rather than nobility, they were granted monopolies and their taxes were increased (salt, snuff, sugar). Bourgeoisie = merchants with money. Social dominance was held by the nobility and the clergy, who were the privileged class (not taxed). In some specific cases, some bourgeois became nobles. The underprivileged (the vast majority) were farmers (taxpayers) liable to pay taxes and all types of obligations. Also included were the Moors and Jewish converts.
The Seventeenth Century: The Decline of the Empire
The Government of the Valid (Pref)
Decrees of New Plant (prohibiting hunting, eliminating customs, and centralizing Spain). In 1700, the War of the Spanish Succession began (Philip V against Aragon and Catalonia).
Philip III opened a new stage for the Habsburgs. Both he and his successors renounced personally exercising the duties of government and delegated power to the validos (favorites). He had a peaceful reign, giving the government to the Duke of Lerma, who managed to keep peace abroad. Internally, he expelled the Moriscos, which undermined the economy. Some Moriscos remained in Lanzarote.
Philip IV
Spain became involved in European conflicts again. The causes lay in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). The Count-Duke of Olivares, the king’s favorite, supported a war that sought to maintain Habsburg hegemony in Europe and slow down France. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war. The war impoverished the country, and in 1640, rebellions occurred in Catalonia, Andalusia, and Portugal (the latter eventually separated from Spain). In Catalonia, the rebels allied with France and prolonged the war. Peace was signed in 1659 (Peace of the Pyrenees) (France surrendered Roussillon and Cerdanya).
Charles II: The Last of the Habsburgs
This was the most critical moment of the empire. The king’s inability, the corruption of his validos (who used political power for personal enrichment), the economic crisis, and the loss of Spain’s political weight internationally all contributed to the decline. Charles II died without issue, giving rise to a succession dispute between supporters of the French candidate (Philip of Bourbon) and the Austrian candidate (Charles of Austria). The French victory marked the end of the Habsburgs in Spain.