The Spanish Golden Age of Theater: A Comprehensive Guide

Posted on Sep 18, 2024 in Music

1. The National Comedy

In the 17th century, a new form of comedy, known as the national comedy, emerged in Spain. It was pioneered by Lope de Vega and further developed by Calderon de la Barca, among others. This new form of theater was performed in open-air courtyards called corrales, attracting a diverse audience.

1.1. Main Features of the National Comedy

  • Mixture of Tragedy and Comedy: Unlike classical drama, the national comedy blended elements of tragedy and comedy.
  • Dramatic Unities: Spanish playwrights did not adhere to the classical unities of time and place. However, they generally respected the unity of action, with two or three storylines converging towards a single resolution.
  • Division of Drama: Plays were typically divided into three acts or jornadas: exposition, complication, and resolution. Within each act, scenes were marked by changes in meter.
  • Decorum, Language, and Polymetry: Dramatic decorum referred to the appropriateness of behavior and language, ensuring credibility based on the genre and characters. Lope de Vega advocated for clear and chaste language, tailored to the situation and characters. Polymetry, the use of various meters and stanzas, was a hallmark of the national comedy.
  • Themes and Characters: While Lope de Vega primarily focused on themes of honor and virtuous deeds, the national comedy explored a wide range of subjects. Characters were often defined by their gender and social status, falling into six archetypes:
    1. Dama: The female protagonist, typically beautiful, virtuous, and of noble lineage.
    2. Galán: The male counterpart to the dama, characterized by his handsomeness, nobility, generosity, and loyalty.
    3. Poderoso: A figure of authority, often a king, nobleman, or prince.
    4. Viejo: Typically the dama’s father.
    5. Gracioso: A comical figure providing humor and often serving as a foil to the galán.
    6. Criada: The gracioso’s female counterpart, sharing similar characteristics.

2. Types of Drama

Baroque theater encompassed two main types of drama: serious and comic.

2.1. Long Plays

  • Tragedies: Plays with tragic endings, often involving the emotional engagement of the audience.
  • Comedias serias (tragicomedies): Plays exploring various themes, often related to honor.
  • Autos sacramentales: Religious plays centered around the Eucharist.
  • Comedias de capa y espada: Swashbuckling plays featuring gentlemen and their love affairs, often with implausible plots.
  • Comedias de figurón: Plays incorporating a comical character.
  • Comedias palatinas: Situation comedies with noble protagonists.
  • Comedias de disparates: Burlesque plays performed during carnival or the feast of Saint John.

2.2. Short Plays

  • Entremés: Humorous one-act plays.
  • Loas: Short pieces intended to win the audience’s favor.
  • Bailes: Performances with music, singing, and dancing.
  • Jácaras: Sung ballads.
  • Mojigangas: Dances with exaggerated and comical movements.
  • Follas: Short plays combining elements of various comic genres.

3. Corral Theaters

Baroque plays were typically performed in corrales, open-air courtyards surrounded by buildings.

3.1. Theatrical Space

The buildings surrounding the corral had a ground floor and three upper levels:

  • Ground Floor: Located behind the stage.
  • First Floor: Featured boxes (aposentos) for viewing the play.
  • Second Floor: Contained windows (ventanas) for viewing.
  • Third Floor: Housed the attics (desvanes).

The building opposite the stage had four floors:

  • Ground Floor: Contained the entrance, refreshment stand (alojera), and two apartments.
  • First Floor: Housed the cazuela, a segregated seating area for women.
  • Second Floor: Contained the balcony for city councilors and seven apartments.
  • Third Floor: Housed the dressing rooms (tertulia).

Behind the stage was a wooden structure called the casa de vestuario (costume house). The first floor, also known as the vestuario, was used to represent different settings. The second floor was the first fly loft, the third floor the second fly loft, and the fourth floor the attic, used for machinery. The corral was covered by a large awning.

3.2. Audience

The audience sat on benches or stood in the courtyard. Men were typically located in the courtyard and attics, while women sat in the cazuela. The boxes offered mixed seating. Religious figures often attended performances.

4. Court Theater

Court theater flourished during the reign of Philip III, coinciding with the rise of the national comedy. Drama became a central element of courtly entertainment. With Philip IV’s ascension to the throne, court theatrical activity intensified, and Italian set designers were brought to Spain. The Zarzuela Palace hosted a performance of a Calderon play that combined spoken dialogue with recitatives and arias, marking the birth of the zarzuela (Spanish operetta).

Theatrical productions declined after the death of Philip IV, but were revived under the new queen. Florentine designer Baccio del Bianco introduced innovative stage designs. Court theater reached its peak during this period, but gradually declined after the death of Philip IV. Attempts to compensate for a lack of originality with lavish productions proved futile.

5. Auto Sacramental

The auto sacramental was a type of religious play with the Eucharist as its central theme. It revolved around the story of salvation and the exaltation of the sacrament.

5.1. Auto Sacramental Features

  • Structure: Typically one act.
  • Theme: Combined religious teachings with the celebration of Corpus Christi and the Eucharist, often using allegory.
  • Scenery: Lavish and symbolic.

5.2. Representation

Initially performed in churches, autos sacramentales were later staged on mobile platforms called carros. Music played a crucial role, with hymns often incorporated into the performances.

6. Lope de Vega

Lope de Vega, known as the”Phoenix of Wits” is credited with establishing the national comedy. A prolific writer from humble beginnings, he led a scandalous life.

6.1. Features of Lope’s Works

Lope de Vega’s plays, written for performance in corrales, were characterized by their blend of religious and popular elements. He aimed to appeal to a wide audience, incorporating both comedic elements for the commoners and elevated language for the more sophisticated theatergoers.

Major Dramatic Works of Lope de Vega

  • Comedias de capa y espada: La dama boba (The Foolish Lady)
  • Comedias palatinas: El perro del hortelano (The Dog in the Manger)
  • Comedias bíblicas: La obra de Jacob (The Work of Jacob)
  • Comedias de santos: El divino fingidor (The Divine Pretender)
  • Comedias mitológicas: Adonis y Venus (Adonis and Venus)
  • Comedias serias: Fuenteovejuna
  • Tragedias: El caballero de Olmedo (The Knight from Olmedo)
  • Teatro cortesano: Amar sin saber a quién (To Love Without Knowing Whom)

6.2. Fuenteovejuna

This play introduces the concept of a collective protagonist, the townspeople of Fuenteovejuna. The plot revolves around the confrontation between the tyrannical Commander and the oppressed townspeople. Laurencia, a courageous woman, incites the town to action.

6.3. El caballero de Olmedo

Based on a true story, this play draws inspiration from Fernando de Rojas’ La Celestina. It employs foreshadowing and is considered a tragedy due to its themes of love, death, and fate.

6.4. Peribáñez y el comendador de Ocaña

This play explores the theme of honor through the conflict between Peribáñez, a peasant, and Don Fadrique, the Commander of Ocaña. The Commander becomes infatuated with Peribáñez’s wife and sends him off to war. Upon his return, Peribáñez discovers the Commander’s advances and kills him. The king ultimately pardons Peribáñez. The play follows a single storyline.

6.5. La dama boba

This swashbuckling comedy is notable for its urban setting and abundance of comedic devices. The plot revolves around two sisters, one intelligent and the other foolish. A poet falls for the foolish sister, while a suitor, intended for the intelligent sister, finds himself enamored with the foolish one.

7. Tirso de Molina

7.1. Features of Tirso’s Works

Tirso de Molina, following in Lope de Vega’s footsteps, championed the new comedy, incorporating elements of intellectual and psychological depth. His plays often addressed the status of women. He was a master of comedy and a creator of memorable characters.

Key Plays

  • Comedias: Marta la piadosa (Martha the Divine)
  • Comedias palatinas: El vergonzoso en palacio (The Shy Man at Court)
  • Dramas bíblicos: La mujer que manda en casa (The Woman Who Rules the House)
  • Comedias de santos: Santa Juana (Saint Joan)
  • Tragicomedia: El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra (The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest)
  • Comedias mitológicas: El Aquiles (Achilles)
  • Autos sacramentales: El laberinto de Creta (The Labyrinth of Crete)

7.2. El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra

This play marks the first appearance of the iconic character Don Juan. The drama unfolds in two parts: Don Juan Tenorio’s seductions of four women, and the consequences of his actions, including a double invitation and his ultimate punishment. Don Juan represents a certain class of nobleman, believing that all is fair in love and seduction. The play critiques the moral state of Spain, targeting all social classes.

8. Calderon de la Barca

Calderon de la Barca was the last great playwright of the Spanish Baroque.

8.1. Features of Calderon’s Works

Calderon’s plays are known for their intellectual depth and complexity. He primarily focused on serious themes, presenting a pessimistic view of human nature. His comedic characters are more complex than those of his predecessors. Lyrical elements, such as music, are integral to his plays. His language is characterized by its poetic, courtly, and serious tone, often incorporating Petrarchan conceits. His works can be divided into two periods.

Major Dramatic Works

  • Tragedies: El médico de su honra (The Surgeon of His Honor)
  • Comedias serias: La vida es sueño (Life is a Dream), El alcalde de Zalamea (The Mayor of Zalamea)
  • Comedias cortesanas: Eco y Narciso (Echo and Narcissus)
  • Comedias de capa y espada: La dama duende (The Phantom Lady)
  • Autos sacramentales: La cena del rey Baltasar (Belshazzar’s Feast)

8.2. La vida es sueño

This play tells the story of Prince Segismundo, imprisoned in a tower since childhood. His father, King Basilio, locked him away after a prophecy foretold that Segismundo would become a tyrant. The king brings Segismundo to court, but the prince reacts violently and is returned to his prison. Upon waking, Segismundo questions whether his experiences were real or a dream. He ultimately forgives his father and resolves to be a just king. The subplot follows Rosaura, who arrives at the Polish court searching for Astolfo. Segismundo, despite falling in love with Rosaura, ultimately chooses to uphold honor and order by reuniting her with Astolfo. The play explores themes of fate, free will, the nature of reality, self-control, power, and justice.

8.3. El alcalde de Zalamea

This play examines themes of justice and the impunity of the nobility. Don Alvaro, a captain, is hosted by Pedro Crespo. He kidnaps and violates Crespo’s daughter, Isabel. Crespo demands the captain’s arrest and insists that he marry Isabel to restore her honor. When Don Alvaro refuses, Crespo orders his execution. Crespo is ultimately appointed the permanent mayor of Zalamea, and Isabel enters a convent.

8.4. El médico de su honra

This play is a classic example of the honor drama. Infante Don Enrique, injured in a fall from his horse, is aided by Doña Mencía, who is now married to Don Gutierre. Gutierre, suspicious of his wife’s fidelity, demands that a surgeon kill her. The king forces Gutierre to marry Leonor.

8.5. La dama duende

This play embodies the characteristics of the swashbuckling comedy. Don Manuel receives gifts and messages from a”phantom lady” who turns out to be Doña Angela, the sister of his friend Don Luis. Don Luis discovers the secret rendezvous and challenges Don Manuel to a duel to defend his family’s honor. The play concludes with the marriage of Don Manuel and Doña Angela, restoring order and honor.