The Spanish Habsburgs: Charles V and Philip II
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
Communities and Germanías
Charles I, son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile, inherited Spain in 1516. His Flemish and Burgundian entourage caused discontent among the Spanish courts. Upon his grandfather Maximilian’s death, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor, further fueling resentment in Castile. He requested funds from the courts, promising changes, but failed to deliver, leading to unrest.
Serious disturbances arose, initiated by the city of Toledo. Communities formed their own army, supporting the rebels who established the Santa Junta in 1520. However, the revolt was crushed in 1521, and its leaders (Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado) were executed.
In 1520, Charles I granted Valencia permission to create militias against Berber attacks. These militias, known as Germanías (brotherhoods), later appeared in Mallorca. Led by artisans and craftsmen, they defended their rights against the nobility. Riots and looting ensued, but the Germanías were eventually defeated by the Valencian nobles, their leaders executed, and their followers repressed.
Thus began the reign of Charles I, the first Habsburg monarch of Spain (1516-1556).
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Philip II, son of Charles I, reigned over Spain from 1556 to 1598. He aimed to maintain Spanish hegemony in Europe and ensure the triumph of Catholicism.
Initially, he continued his father’s foreign policy, warring with France and winning the Battle of San Quentin (1557). The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) followed. His court was divided between the Falcons, advocating for Spain’s reputation through war, and the Doves, favoring negotiation.
Philip’s personal policy focused on the Mediterranean. He suppressed the Moorish rebellion in Granada (1559-1570) and fought the Ottoman Empire. He formed the Holy League with the Papacy and Venice, defeating the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), led by his brother, Don Juan of Austria.
On the Atlantic front, Philip faced the Dutch Revolt (Calvinists), resulting in the separation of the Spanish Netherlands. He also clashed with England over piracy in the Caribbean and support for the Dutch rebels, culminating in the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. However, he successfully annexed Portugal in 1580.
Domestically, Philip’s rule was characterized by authoritarianism and intolerance. He fought Lutheranism in Valladolid and Seville, banning students from studying abroad in 1559, leading to scientific and cultural isolation. He reinforced his power, executing the chief justice of Aragon and banishing his former secretary, Antonio Perez (1594). He also expelled the Moors after the Alpujarras rebellion (1568-1571).
Spain in the 16th Century: Iberian Unity
To consolidate Spanish hegemony, Philip II sought to incorporate Portugal. When the Portuguese king died without an heir, Philip, as the son of Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, claimed the throne. The nobility and clergy supported him, while the lower classes favored Antonio de Crato, an illegitimate grandson of Manuel I of Portugal.
After a war led by the Duke of Alba, Philip was recognized as King of Portugal in 1581, achieving Iberian unity. He ruled all Iberian territories, along with European and overseas possessions, creating the largest empire ever seen.
The Political Model of the Habsburgs
The 16th-century Spanish Monarchy comprised various realms and territories with significant autonomy. Castile, the wealthiest and most populous, offered the monarch the greatest degree of absolute power. The capital was established in Madrid in 1561.
The Habsburg political model can be defined as Polysynodal, meaning government through councils. The most important was the Council of State, established by Chancellor Gattinara, representing the monarch’s authority and dealing with crucial issues like foreign policy and war.
Regional councils addressed specific issues in each kingdom, including Castile, Aragon, India, Italy, Flanders, and Portugal. Technical councils handled specialized matters, such as the Inquisition, military orders, and finance. Viceroys and governors represented the king in territories where he could not reside.