The Spanish Monarchy: From the Catholic Monarchs to Felipe II
The Catholic Monarchs and the Rise of the Modern State
Consolidation of Power
Following the death of Enrique IV, a sector of the high nobility favored his daughter Juana. However, another sector, supporting Isabel, achieved victory in 1479. With the death of Juan II of Aragon, the inheritance of the crown fell to his son, Ferdinand. This marked the consolidation of power in the newly unified Spanish kingdom. The conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, along with the Duke of Alba, solidified their rule. They also incorporated the Canary Islands into the Crown of Castile in 1496 under the direction of Alfonso Fernandez de Lugo.
Institutions of the Modern State
- Santa Hermandad
- Royal Chancilleria (legal advisory body)
- Tribunal of the Inquisition
Economic Growth
The transhumant sheep farming industry consolidated as the main economic activity in the different kingdoms, primarily in Castile. The Mesta, an organization regulating the interests of farmers, saw increasing privileges. Production methods focused on raw materials for manufactured goods. Trade, particularly in the territories of the Crown of Castile, flourished, benefiting marine and shipping carriers. The nobility played a significant role in this growing society.
Religious Policy
Religious policy was based on the suppression of minorities:
The Jews
The Queen forced the Jews to convert to Christianity or leave the Spanish realms. The vast majority chose to emigrate.
Islam
The monarchs imposed conversion or expulsion.
Reform of the Church (Regalism)
The Catholic Monarchs gained the right of presenting bishops in vacant dioceses. This practice, known as regalism, strengthened royal control over the Church.
The Inquisition
The Inquisition, established by papal bull, aimed to combat converts who continued their Jewish practices.
Foreign Policy (Matrimonial Policy)
The union of Aragon and Castile led to a unified foreign policy, shifting away from the traditional Castilian alliance with France. Prince John and his sister Joan married Margaret and Felipe, respectively. The alliance with Britain culminated in the marriage of Princess Catherine to Arthur, crown prince. After Arthur’s death, she married his brother, King Henry VIII. Isabella, the eldest daughter, was initially betrothed to Alfonso, heir to the Portuguese throne. After his death, she married his brother, Manuel.
Expansion in the Mediterranean
While the Crown of Castile focused on the Atlantic, including the conquest of the Canary Islands and the discovery of America, expansion in the Mediterranean also took place.
Methods of Colonization: The Encomienda
The Spanish attempted to exploit the indigenous workforce to exhaustion and inadvertently infected them with diseases.
Administration of the Indies
- Hearings (courts)
- Municipalities
- Viceroys
Carlos V: King and Emperor
To finance his imperial ambitions, Carlos V raised taxes, causing discontent among the Spanish, who resented his disregard for Castilian laws.
Draft of a Christian Empire: War with France
Carlos V reignited the dispute with France over Navarre, fueled by his personal rivalry with the French King, Francis I. He engaged in six wars with France, beginning in 1521 with the invasion of Navarre. These conflicts were intertwined with the struggle against Islam in the Mediterranean. His reign was marked by a series of wars and truces with France, which were not resolved until the reign of Felipe II at the Battle of St. Quentin.
Dispute with the Papacy
Imperial troops conquered Rome in 1527, subjecting it to a prolonged pillage. The papacy was also reluctant to cooperate with the emperor, fearing excessive imperial control over the Church.
Anti-Islam (Turkish Expansionism)
The Turks threatened imperial domains through the Danube Valley and the Mediterranean Sea. Having conquered Hungary, they besieged Vienna. In the Mediterranean, with the support of North African allies and the King of France, they raided and plundered the Italian and Spanish coasts. The emperor’s efforts to counter the Turkish threat at Algiers in 1541 failed.
Failure of the Imperial Idea
Carlos V divided his inheritance, leaving the Austrian imperial lands to his brother Ferdinand, who had signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestants. Carlos I abdicated the Spanish kingdoms and Italian dominions, as well as the Netherlands and the Swiss county, to his son. He convened a meeting in Worms, where he expressed his opposition to Luther and called for a council to reform the Church. Some German princes had already embraced Lutheran doctrines.
Felipe II
Felipe II’s reign began in 1556. Unlike his father, he was not a military leader but a bureaucrat who sought to control every detail of the administration.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
Tensions arose between the Moriscos (Muslims who had converted to Christianity) and the Old Christians, who opposed the Moriscos’ retention of their cultural identity and customs. This led to the expulsion of the Moriscos.
Aragón Alterations
Amidst social crisis and regional resistance to royal authority, Antonio Perez, a former secretary of the king imprisoned for murder, fled to Aragon in 1591. He sought refuge in the Justicia forum of Zaragoza. To retrieve the prisoner, the royal army entered Aragon, allowing Felipe II to regain control. This event strengthened royal authority.
Netherlands
Felipe II signed a twelve-year truce with the Netherlands in 1609, which led to the de facto recognition of the independence of this territory.