The Spanish Monarchy in the 18th and 19th Centuries
The Monarchy of Charles IV
Charles IV’s reliance on individuals outside the government and his trust in Godoy illustrated the power of a young, originally humble soldier, Manuel Godoy. The execution of French King Louis XVI prompted Charles IV to declare war on France. The defeat of the Spanish troops solidified the absolute monarchies. The Peace of Basel subordinated Spain to French interests. Spanish politics vacillated between fear of France and attempts to appease it to avoid confrontation with Napoleon’s powerful army. Alliances with France led to conflict with Great Britain, and the Battle of Trafalgar became a significant milestone. The Franco-Spanish navy was destroyed, resulting in the loss of almost the entire fleet of Charles IV. Faced with this situation, Godoy turned to debt and comprehensive land reforms, such as the ecclesiastical disentailment, which caused widespread opposition. The nobility and the church opposed Godoy’s reforms.
The War of Independence
In 1807, the people of Aranjuez rose up against Charles IV and his minister Godoy because they had allowed Napoleon’s troops to cross the peninsula under the pretext of invading Portugal. The riot was investigated by Charles IV’s son, Ferdinand VII, who had disagreements with his father about the political approach towards the French emperor. Napoleon took advantage of this delicate situation between father and son. He held them captive and forced them to renounce the Spanish crown, appointing his brother, Joseph I, as king and introducing his troops.
Outbreak of the War
The people of Madrid, angered by the presence of a foreign army and rumors that Napoleon had kidnapped the royal family, rose up on May 2, 1808. This uprising was brutally suppressed by the invaders. Local and provincial boards were established, coordinated by a central board, which were commissioned to recruit an army and lead the war against the French. The definitive expulsion of the French and the restoration of the Spanish territory extended throughout the country.
End of the War
General Castaños defeated General Pierre Dupont at the Battle of Bailen. The victory led Joseph Bonaparte to leave Madrid, prompting Napoleon to enter the peninsula with 250,000 men. Napoleon’s army managed to quell the uprising and occupy Andalusia.
Cortes of Cadiz
The Supreme Central Junta initiated a process of convening the Cortes, where representatives of the nation would decide on its organization and destiny. The Cortes established a regency consisting of five members. The process of electing deputies to the Cortes and their meeting in Cadiz were difficult, given the state of war. The Cortes opened in September 1810, and the liberal sector achieved its first victory by forcing the formation of a single chamber. At its first meeting, it approved the principle of national sovereignty (power resides in the citizens represented by the Cortes).
Constitution of 1812
The Constitution contained a bill of rights for citizens: freedom of thought, equality of Spaniards before the law, civil liberty, property rights, and recognition of all individuals making up the nation. The state structure was a limited monarchy.
The Legislature
The unicameral Cortes represented the national will and possessed broad powers: development of laws, approval of budgets, and so on. The executive branch held the power to implement laws through sanctions. The initiative and decisions of the monarch were limited.
Justice
Justice was the responsibility of the courts, and the basic principles of the rule of law were established: civil, criminal, and commercial codes, etc. Other articles of the Constitution planned tax reform, conscription, and the establishment of primary education councils. The formation of groups responsible to the people for governing was established, and the National Militia (volunteers who would defend the nation in war) was created.
The War of Succession
In 1700, the last monarch of the House of Austria, Charles II, died without a direct heir. The candidates to occupy the throne were Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, and Archduke Charles of Austria, son of Emperor Leopold I. Charles II’s testament designated the Bourbon candidate as his successor, who was proclaimed king (1700) with the name Philip V. This appointment provoked a serious conflict that affected the balance of power in Europe. Philip V’s accession to the Spanish throne strengthened Bourbon influence in Europe. Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Austria quickly supported the Austrian candidate and went to war against France and Spain. The War of the Spanish Succession became an international conflict. In Spain, the succession issue also divided the peninsular territories. Castile remained loyal to Philip V, except for a part of the nobility, fearful of losing their privileges and influence with the change to Bourbon absolutism. In Aragon, the Crown endorsed the Austrian candidate. The forces were fairly balanced, and the Bourbons proved incapable of defeating the allied armies that supported Charles of Habsburg. But in 1711, an event changed the course of events: on April 17, the Emperor of Austria died, and Archduke Joseph Charles ascended the throne. Then the English and Dutch showed their interest in ending the war and recognizing Philip V as the Spanish monarch, but without the power that Charles would have had. The peace treaties were signed in Utrecht and Rastatt (1713-1714). In exchange for important concessions to Austria, which kept Milan, Flanders, Sardinia, and Naples, Great Britain received Gibraltar and Minorca as compensation. The imposition of Bourbon absolutism, which had already begun with the authoritarian Habsburg monarchy, led to a concentration of power in Castile. Its Cortes had not met since 1665 and had already approved taxes. Upon installing themselves on the Spanish throne, the Bourbons introduced the absolutist model implemented in France under Louis XIV. During the 18th century, the absolute monarch was the embodiment of the state itself: the territory belonged to him, and the institutions emanated from his will. His power was practically unlimited since he was the source of law, the highest authority, the head of government, and of justice.