The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931): Constitution, Politics, and Social Change
The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931)
Constitutional Monarchy
The restoration of the Bourbons to the throne in 1874 ushered in a period of nearly half a century characterized by a predominantly conservative political landscape and governance under the Constitution of 1876. The leading figure of this era was Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a conservative intellectual and monarchist. The constitution established a bicameral parliament where the king shared sovereignty with the Cortes, marking the beginning of the Spanish Restoration. This period, which reached its peak before Alfonso XIII’s coming of age, witnessed the consolidation of the bourgeois liberal revolution and the return to power of the landowning bourgeoisie. The restoration of the Bourbon dynasty was accepted by most Republicans, except for the Carlists. Cánovas opted for a new constitution that would serve as an instrument of political integration.
The Constitution of 1876
The Constitution of 1876 was a text agreed upon by the Cortes and the Crown. The principle of national sovereignty was replaced by the shared sovereignty of the Cortes and the King. It was a flexible constitution, allowing for governments with different ideologies and projects. It established a parliamentary monarchy with a bicameral legislature and ministers accountable to the parliament. Approved by the Cortes on June 30, 1876, this constitution, with its extended historical validity, enabled the regularization of Spanish political life.
General Principles:
- Shared Sovereignty: Legislative initiative was shared between the Cortes and the King.
- Bicameral Legislature: A bicameral system was established with a Congress of Deputies (one deputy per 50,000 inhabitants) and a Senate composed of three categories: a) Senators in their own right (grandees of Spain, high-ranking military and clergy); b) Life senators appointed by the King; c) Elected senators (restricted suffrage). The Senate was controlled by a powerful social and economic minority, and both chambers had less autonomy than in the past. They met annually, convened by the King. The King appointed the President of the Senate and could veto legislation. The King could also suspend and dissolve the Cortes, including the Senate and Congress, but was obliged to convene them within three months.
- Executive Power: Executive power resided with the government or Council of Ministers, appointed by the King at the proposal of the President. The Council was collectively responsible to the parliament.
- Individual Rights: The Constitution aimed to safeguard individual rights, although the mechanisms for doing so were not clearly defined.
- Suffrage: The Constitution initially established a restricted suffrage but transitioned to universal male suffrage in 1890.
- Confessional State: Spain was declared a Catholic confessional state.
Assessment and Development
The Constitution of 1876 was more liberal than the 1845 Constitution and even incorporated some elements from the 1869 Constitution. Its brevity was a notable feature. The commission of notables created by Cánovas aimed to minimize declarations and precepts, leaving the development of specific laws to address contentious issues. It remained in force for 47 years, was suppressed by Primo de Rivera, and was reinstated in 1930 until the proclamation of the Second Republic on April 14, 1931.
The Regency of Maria Cristina
Following the King’s premature death in 1885, Queen Maria Cristina assumed the Regency. The Pact of El Pardo saw political parties agree to alternate in power, marking the period from 1885 to 1902. Sagasta (Liberal) initiated this period with his”Long Government” characterized by stability and significant legislative activity. Cánovas returned to the presidency between 1890 and 1892, followed by Sagasta until 1895. Cánovas was assassinated in 1897, and Sagasta returned to power until 1899. The Conservatives held the final term of the Regency.
Electoral Manipulation and Caciquismo
While the Constitution of 1876 initially established restricted suffrage, it transitioned to universal male suffrage in 1890. However, the right to vote had limited impact due to the electoral system’s manipulation by the government through caciquismo. This oligarchic and clientelistic system, prevalent in Spain between 1830 and 1923, reached its peak between 1890 and 1923. It operated on three levels: local bosses, national oligarchs, and civil governors. Both Cánovas (Conservative) and Sagasta (Liberal) used caciquismo to maintain their hold on power. Following the dissolution of the Cortes, the President and Minister of the Interior would send instructions to provincial governors regarding the desired electoral outcomes. In cities, officials loyal to the governor would manipulate results or fill in blank ballots (electoral fraud).
The Social Movement and the Rise of Labor Organizations
The early 20th century saw the emergence of anarchist, syndicalist, and Marxist movements in Spain. The Spanish proletariat, though significant for a predominantly agricultural country, was geographically concentrated. The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) was founded in Madrid in 1879 and consolidated in 1888, achieving success in industrialized regions and among skilled workers. Pablo Iglesias, its founder, played a key role in its development. In 1881, an anarchist-inspired labor federation was founded in Barcelona. Repression hindered its growth, but a more organized phase began in 1911 with the establishment of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT in Barcelona. The CNT dominated the labor movement until the Spanish Civil War. The Communists organized as the Spanish Communist Party (PCE) in 1921.
Pablo Iglesias and the Birth of the PSOE
The PSOE gained momentum from 1910, culminating in Pablo Iglesias winning the first Socialist seat in parliament. The party faced internal challenges and debated coalitions with Republicans. Socialism emerged as an organized force in Spain during the 1868 Revolution. The Sagasta government, alarmed by its growth, passed a law in 1872 that outlawed the First International and dissolved associated organizations. The labor movement split into two factions: the anarchist Bakuninists and the Marxists, who would later form the Second International and the PSOE. Iglesias founded a printers’ association in 1874, which evolved into a national party. Cánovas refused to recognize it, forcing the party to operate underground. Sagasta granted it legal status in 1881, and the PSOE was formally established at the Barcelona Congress in 1888. Iglesias became the party’s secretary and dedicated himself to its growth. He participated in the 1886 and 1894 elections with limited success. He also founded and directed the socialist newspaper El Socialista. The Cuban War and the Disaster of 1898 contributed to the party’s expansion, and by the time of Iglesias’ death in 1925, the PSOE had a significant presence throughout Spain.
Repression of Andalusian and Catalan Anarchism
Andalusia and Catalonia became major centers of social conflict during the Restoration. The use of the army to suppress dissent led to the emergence of underground terrorist groups. These groups launched violent attacks against political figures and the means of production.
The Colonial Disaster and the Crisis of ’98
Context:
The Spanish Restoration coincided with a period of relative peace in Europe known as the Armed Peace. Germany, under Bismarck’s leadership, had achieved political unity and industrial development, becoming a dominant force through a system of alliances aimed at isolating France. France and England focused on colonial expansion in Africa and Asia, seeking markets and raw materials. Spain remained isolated from the Bismarckian system, having only a treaty with Italy. This isolation left Spain vulnerable to the growing influence of U.S. imperialism in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The loss of Spain’s last colonies was linked to the reorganization of the colonial map by the major industrial powers.
Crisis of ’98: A Problem with Internal and External Repercussions
Causes:
- Failure of Spanish Colonial Policy: The 1878 Pact of Zanjón failed to address the grievances of Cuban Creoles, who sought political, economic, and fiscal autonomy. They rallied around the Cuban Liberal Party and the revolutionary party founded in 1892 by José Martí. The U.S. supported Cuban autonomy.
- Economic Weakness: Spain’s inability to absorb Cuban sugar production and provide manufactured goods fueled discontent among Creoles, who believed that Spain’s economic backwardness hindered Cuba’s development. The U.S., with its expanding economy, became an attractive alternative.
- Mismanagement by Spanish Governments: The Restoration governments failed to address the Cuban problem effectively. An autonomy plan proposed by Antonio Maura in 1893 was rejected, and a limited autonomy law granted in 1895 came too late.
- Rise of Cuban Nationalism: Patriotic sentiment in Cuba grew, fueled by the desire for independence and supported by U.S. interests.
Development of the Conflict:
the Cuban uprising led by Jose Marti and the collaboration of Maximo Gomez, A. Maceo and Calixto Garcia Apollo in the rebellious peasants power in February 1895 the eastern part of the island under the so-called cry of Baire. Canovas pursued a policy of reconciliation by sending General Martinez Campos to negotiate and prevent the advancement of sublebados, he failed and was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler energico 1896