The Spanish Restoration (1875-1902): Constitution, Politics, and Alfonso XII
The 1876 Spanish Constitution
Approval and Core Principles
The 1876 Constitution served as the fundamental law of Spain, outlining the structure and limitations of its government. It defined the relationship between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, establishing a framework for governance and guaranteeing certain rights to the people. Key ideas reflected in the text include:
- Freedom of expression for all Spanish citizens.
- Recognition of Catholicism as the state religion, with restrictions on public ceremonies and events of other faiths.
- Legislative power vested in the Cortes (Parliament) and the King.
- The Cortes composed of Congress and Senate, with members eligible for indefinite reelection.
- Executive power residing in the King, with tribunals and courts responsible for enforcing laws in civil and criminal trials.
Alfonso XII (1857-1885): King of Spain
Alfonso XII’s accession to the throne in 1875 marked the beginning of the Restoration period in Spain. The son of Queen Isabella II, he was exiled to France at age 11 following the 1868 revolution. Educated in Paris, Vienna, and Sandhurst military academy, he issued a manifesto in 1874 advocating a policy of conciliation. His mother abdicated in his favor in 1870, paving the way for the Bourbon monarchy’s return. Following the failures of the Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874), General Arsenio Martínez Campos’s actions in Sagunto in December 1874 precipitated Alfonso’s return and coronation in January 1875.
The Spanish State and Senate
The State: The Spanish state held sovereignty over a defined territory, encompassing government organizations and the territory itself. Sovereignty was shared between the King and the Cortes.
The Senate: The Senate, the upper house of the bicameral parliament, was not elected at this time. One-third of its members were government ministers, another third comprised individuals holding specific positions (e.g., generals, bishops), and the final third consisted of wealthy individuals.
The First Restoration (1875-1902): Political System
The political system of the First Restoration was shaped by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, based on the British model of a liberal, constitutional monarchy. Power was concentrated in the hands of a few (oligarchy), effectively eliminating democracy. Key features included:
- The Crown, with Alfonso XII as King.
- The 1876 Constitution.
- The Cortes (Parliament).
- Bipartisanship and turnismo (rotation of power).
The Cortes and Bipartisanship
The Cortes was bicameral, with universal male suffrage. Two parties dominated the political landscape:
- Conservative Party: Led by Cánovas del Castillo, it initially governed for five consecutive years.
- Liberal Party: Led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, it was formed by progressives and some Unionists.
Both parties shared similarities: adherence to the Constitution, a progressive outlook, and a preference for order. Following Alfonso XII’s death and the establishment of a regency, Cánovas and Sagasta agreed to share power through the Pact of El Pardo. This led to turnismo, where each party would ensure the other’s victory in subsequent elections, guaranteeing an absolute majority.
Suffrage, Caciquismo, and Election Manipulation
Suffrage was expanded in 1890, but turnismo persisted. This ensured a smooth transition from the regency, with both parties alternating in power. The system relied on electoral fraud (e.g., using votes of deceased individuals), particularly after 1890. During the regency, a resigning government would be replaced by the other party through elections orchestrated to guarantee their victory. The cacique emerged as a powerful figure, acting as an intermediary between the government and the people, responsible for securing votes for the ruling party.