The Spanish Transition to Democracy
The Spanish Transition to Democracy (1978-2000)
The New Democratic Constitution and Early Challenges
The new democratic Constitution, adopted after 1978, led to elections called by Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez. His UCD party’s victory on March 1, 1979, marked a significant shift in Spanish politics. The PSOE also gained strength, particularly with the emergence of the Andalusian Socialist Party. Municipal elections on April 3 saw a victory for a left-wing coalition of communists and socialists, signaling a potential alternative to the UCD and helping to fade the lingering ghosts of the Civil War.
The momentum towards an autonomous state gained traction. In September 1979, the Catalan Generalitat was restored with Josep Tarradellas as president. While accepting Catalan autonomy as established in 1931, Tarradellas also expressed appreciation for the monarchy and the unity of Spain. In early 1978, the General Council of the Basque Country and the Xunta de Galicia were instituted. However, distrust remained in the Basque Country. Autonomic platforms were created in Aragon, the Canary Islands, Valencia, and Andalusia, soon followed by others, effectively drawing the map of Spain’s autonomous communities. The statutes of autonomy for the historical communities (Catalonia, Basque Country, and Galicia) were adopted, with Andalusia joining later. These regions opted for the fast track of Article 151, while the rest followed the slower pathway of Article 143.
The first government focused its legislative efforts on key areas: Civil Code reform, the Workers’ Statute, the Organic Law on Religious Freedom, the Constitutional Court, and fiscal reform. However, political disenchantment grew from 1980 onwards due to an economic crisis and rising unemployment. Discrepancies arose within the UCD, with some leaders questioning Suárez’s leadership and his perceived excessive control over politics. Despite Suárez’s attempts to patch up the government, the crisis persisted. Under pressure from disillusioned citizens and military sectors, Suárez resigned in January 1981. Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo was nominated as his successor at a UCD congress, but the party’s deterioration continued.
The Coup Attempt and Calvo Sotelo’s Government
Increased terrorist activity by ETA and GRAPO, coupled with growing discontent, fueled concerns about potential coups. While Operation Galaxy, a planned coup, was dismantled, another attempt occurred on February 23. During a parliamentary session to invest Calvo Sotelo as Prime Minister, Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero of the Guardia Civil staged a coup, holding the government and congressional representatives hostage. King Juan Carlos I’s swift intervention and the lack of widespread support for the coup proved decisive, forcing Tejero to abandon his attempt.
Calvo Sotelo’s government managed to redirect the economic policy and steered Spain towards NATO membership, a move opposed by the left. Domestically, the government focused on improving the economy, public security, and passing a law against terrorism. It also advanced the legislative process for a divorce law. However, the UCD’s internal crisis remained unstoppable. In 1982, Suárez founded a new party, the Social Democratic Center (CDS), and Calvo Sotelo called for general elections in October 1982.
The Socialist Era: Felipe González and PSOE
The PSOE, led by Felipe González, won an absolute majority in the 1982 elections, followed by Alianza Popular, the remnants of the UCD, the PCE, and nationalist parties. The PSOE had programmatically renewed its ideology, embracing the monarchy and abandoning Marxism. Their electoral platform promised 800,000 new jobs, a referendum on Spain’s NATO membership, and a government of honest individuals.
As Spain’s first socialist president, González could exercise significant executive power. His initial focus was on strengthening democracy, modernizing state structures, combating the economic crisis, and expanding the welfare state. In 1986, Spain joined the European Economic Community (EEC), marking a major step towards modernization. The PSOE maintained its absolute majority in the 1986 elections, albeit with a slight decrease in votes. Conservative parties like Fraga’s AP and Suárez’s CDS gained ground, as did the United Left (IU).
The PSOE’s popularity declined in the following years. A general strike by the CCOO and UGT in 1988 and the government’s response highlighted the growing divide between González and more radical elements within the PSOE. The 1987 municipal elections saw a significant loss of votes for the PSOE. In the 1989 general election, González achieved a slim majority, forcing him to form agreements with Suárez’s centrists and Basque and Catalan nationalist parties (the “constitutional block”). The Popular Party (PP, formerly AP), led by José María Aznar, and the United Left (IU) were excluded from these agreements.
Internal divisions emerged within the PSOE between “guerristas” (traditionalists) and “renovators” (reformists). Despite these challenges, the Socialists achieved a landslide victory in the Andalusian elections in 1990.
Economic Recession, Corruption, and the Rise of the PP
Spain entered a period of economic recession and crisis, exacerbated by corruption scandals. In the 1991 municipal elections, the PP emerged as a viable alternative, consolidating its position as the leading center-right party. The 1993 general elections took place against a backdrop of high unemployment and ongoing scandals. González emphasized regeneration and the fight against corruption, including the appointment of judges like Baltasar Garzón. The PSOE secured its fourth consecutive victory, but the gap between them and the PP narrowed significantly. Governance was only possible with the support of Catalan nationalists.
Despite promises, the fight against corruption faltered, and the economic situation did not improve. The PSOE suffered a heavy defeat in the 1995 municipal elections, with the PP gaining control of most major cities. In the March 1996 general elections, the PSOE lost to the PP, but Aznar’s victory was narrow, falling short of an absolute majority.
The Aznar Years and PP Governance
Aznar’s initial difficulties in forming a government highlighted his precarious position. However, his government gradually gained control, aided by a favorable economic climate, successful measures to reduce unemployment, and the absence of major political scandals. The PP sought to moderate its image, presenting itself as a center-right party. These factors, combined with internal problems within the PSOE following González’s resignation as general secretary, contributed to the PP’s absolute majority in the 2000 general election.
The 2000 elections saw the continued presence of CiU and PNV, while other nationalist parties gained prominence. The Andalusian Party (PA) gained representation, and the United Left (IU) suffered a significant defeat.
A Modern Society
During the Transition, Spanish society became more egalitarian, reflecting its increasing modernization. The decline in the agricultural workforce and the growing role of women, whose participation rate increased rapidly in the 1980s, are prime examples. Another indicator, albeit less positive, is the decline in the Spanish fertility rate. Nevertheless, family values remain crucial in Spanish society, providing support networks that help alleviate problems like unemployment.
A characteristic feature of Spanish society is the growing process of secularization. In political terms, Spain exhibits a degree of “democratic cynicism”: while most believe democracy is the best system, few are willing to actively participate in collective associations or volunteer work.
New Cultural Perspectives
A) A New Cultural Policy: The Historical Heritage Act (1985) and legislation related to patronage facilitated a new cultural policy. The creation of a wider musical audience, the establishment of the Reina Sofia Museum and Art Center, and the relocation of the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum to Spain were significant achievements.
B) New Designers and Trends: A significant shift in Spanish culture occurred around 1985, marked by the emergence of cosmopolitan artists. Novelists like Antonio Muñoz Molina and Javier Marías, painters like Miquel Barceló and José María Sicilia, and filmmakers like Pedro Almodóvar often displayed a departure from traditional Spanish themes.
C) New Cultural Habits: Compared to other European countries, Spain exhibits lower levels of reading and higher levels of television consumption. Regular cinema attendance developed more recently, particularly in the northern half of the peninsula.