The Spanish Transition to Democracy: From Franco to Democracy
The Spanish Transition to Democracy
From Franco’s Death to the Monarchy
After Francisco Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, Juan Carlos I ascended to the Spanish throne. His coronation was met with resistance from various factions. Some opposed the monarchy altogether, fearing a continuation of Franco’s dictatorship. Others questioned the legitimacy of a liberal monarchy established by Franco himself. Traditional monarchists, loyal to Juan Carlos’s father, Don Juan, also expressed dissent.
Prime Minister Carlos Arias Navarro, initially appointed by Franco, attempted to introduce a superficial veneer of democracy. He pardoned political prisoners and legalized some political parties, excluding the Communists and Nationalists due to their past opposition to the regime. This period saw the emergence of the “bunker,” a group of Franco loyalists staunchly opposed to liberalization.
Simultaneously, the Democratic Coordination, comprised of Socialists and Communists, demanded a complete break from the past. They advocated for a full amnesty, free elections, and the establishment of a Constitutional Court.
Adolfo Suárez and the Reform Process
In July 1976, Arias Navarro’s repression of the labor movement and academia led to his dismissal by Juan Carlos I. Torcuato Fernández Miranda, a Falangist politician, then played a crucial role in selecting Adolfo Suárez as the new Prime Minister. Suárez, a former Francoist official, represented a “second-generation” leader, signaling a potential departure from the past.
Suárez’s government aimed to reform the Francoist legislation through a negotiated rupture with the old regime. Acting swiftly in a climate of distrust, terrorism, and tension, he prioritized three key objectives: a general amnesty for political prisoners, the legalization of nationalist symbols (including flags and languages), and the enactment of the Political Reform Act.
The Political Reform Act, passed by the Francoist Cortes, legalized all political parties, including the Communist Party of Spain (PCE). Suárez’s decision to legalize the PCE, despite its opposition to the monarchy and the army, aimed to prevent potential unrest and ensure a smooth transition. The Act was subsequently approved by a referendum, with overwhelming support from the Spanish population.
The Rise of Terrorism and the Path to Democracy
In January 1977, a far-right group (FRAP) attacked a left-wing law firm in the Atocha massacre, killing five people. The PCE responded with peaceful demonstrations, showcasing their commitment to democratic processes. Following the massacre, a decree legalized all political parties, paving the way for the first democratic elections since the Spanish Civil War.
The electoral law established universal suffrage, with the voting age set at 18. On April 15, 1977, general elections were called to elect a Constituent Cortes. The main political forces included the right-wing Fuerza Nueva and Alianza Popular (AP), the centrist Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) led by Suárez, the left-wing Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) and the PCE, and the nationalist Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) and Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (CDC). The UCD, a coalition of diverse political groups, emerged victorious, securing 35% of the vote.
The Moncloa Pacts and the Constitution
The newly elected Cortes marked a historic moment, with the return of exiled figures like Rafael Alberti and Dolores Ibárruri (“La Pasionaria”). This symbolized a spirit of reconciliation and a desire to overcome the legacy of the Civil War. However, the UCD’s lack of an absolute majority, coupled with a challenging economic and social situation and the rise of terrorism (ETA and GRAPO), necessitated a collaborative approach.
The Moncloa Pacts, signed in October 1977, aimed to address the economic crisis triggered by the oil crisis. The pacts introduced tax reforms and currency devaluation to combat inflation and unemployment. They also addressed the issue of terrorism and condemned the failed Operation Galaxy, a military conspiracy against the nascent democracy.
In December 1978, the Spanish Constitution was approved by a referendum, marking a significant milestone in the transition. The Constitution established Spain as a parliamentary monarchy, guaranteeing fundamental rights and freedoms.
Challenges and Consolidation of Democracy
The second general elections, held in March 1979, resulted in another victory for the UCD. However, challenges soon emerged. The UCD suffered electoral defeats in the April 1979 municipal elections, leading to a coalition between the PSOE and the PCE. Nationalist parties gained ground in the Basque Country (PNV) and Catalonia (CIU). Internal divisions within the UCD, between conservative and progressive factions, further weakened the government.
In 1981, a failed coup d’état led by Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero attempted to restore the Francoist regime. The coup’s failure, due to a lack of military support and the decisive intervention of King Juan Carlos I, solidified the democratic transition.
Following the coup attempt, Calvo Sotelo replaced Suárez as Prime Minister. Spain joined NATO under his government, a move opposed by the PSOE and PCE. The PSOE, led by Felipe González, gained popularity, capitalizing on the government’s handling of issues like the contaminated oil scandal and the AIDS epidemic.
In the October 1982 elections, the PSOE secured a landslide victory, marking the end of the transition period and the beginning of a new era in Spanish democracy. Felipe González became Prime Minister, ushering in a period of social and economic reforms that consolidated Spain’s position as a modern European democracy.