The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814): A Nation Forged in War
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Development of War
Napoleon’s occupation of Spain faced unexpected resistance. The Spanish victory at the Battle of Bailén forced King Joseph I to flee Madrid, and French troops retreated north. Napoleon, sending a 150,000-man army, arrived in Madrid in December 1808, reinstating Joseph I. During his time in Spain, Napoleon implemented reforms, abolishing the Inquisition, the feudal system, and convents. Meanwhile, an English army led by Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) landed in the Peninsula to aid the Portuguese, collaborating with the Spanish army. French victories, like the one at Ocaña, allowed Napoleon to control most of Spain, leaving only Cadiz free. At this point, French troop presence peaked at 360,000. By 1812, the demands of the Russian campaign forced Napoleon to withdraw troops from Spain. This weakening was exploited by Wellington’s Anglo-Spanish forces. Following victories at Ciudad Rodrigo and Salamanca, the Spanish parliament appointed Wellington commander of the Spanish armies. The combined forces pushed Joseph I and the French out of Madrid towards Valencia. The French defeat at Vitoria (June 1813) led to Joseph I’s retreat. Wellington’s triumph at San Marcial in October forced the French army across the border. With Napoleon’s defeat in Europe and the Treaty of Valençay, hostilities in Spain ended, and Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne.
The Legislative Work of the Cortes of Cadiz
The Cortes of Cadiz enacted significant reforms, marking a break from existing principles. Their first decree established national sovereignty, transferring power from the king to the Cortes. Equality before the law was proclaimed, challenging the stratified social structure. Equality between Spaniards and Americans was also declared, in response to colonial independence movements. Further reforms included freedom of the press, abolition of torture, suppression of institutions like the Inquisition and feudal lordships, and the confiscation of Church property. A new provincial division was also established.
The Cortes of Cadiz: Composition and Functioning
The election of deputies faced challenges due to the French occupation and the need for representation from the Americas. Various political viewpoints existed within the Cortes: some sought to maintain the absolutist system, others favored a compromise between absolutism and a constitutional model, and the liberals advocated for a single chamber embodying national sovereignty and a new constitution reflecting revolutionary principles. Many original members were replaced by those present in Cadiz, a liberal stronghold. The Cortes included members of the urban middle classes, state officials, professionals, and merchants, alongside members of the old estates. While the clergy were prominent, the Cortes was not solely a bourgeois liberal revolution, nor were the clergy and nobility uniformly absolutist. Clerics contributed to many reforms, and officials saw an opportunity to reform the monarchy. The military also played a significant role. Cadiz, easily defensible and free from French occupation, provided a unique environment for the Cortes. The atmosphere of the besieged city, with its vibrant social life, encouraged members who saw their legislative work as a chance to modernize Spain. Two main factions emerged: the absolutists (or serviles) and the liberals. With the French expulsion, the Cortes moved to Madrid in January 1814.