The Spanish War of Independence and the Constitution of 1812
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and the Beginnings of the Liberal Revolution
Charles IV and the French Revolution
Charles III died in 1788 and was succeeded by his son, Charles IV, who married Maria Luisa of Orleans. His reign was heavily influenced by the events of the French Revolution. For most of his reign, the Prime Minister was Manuel Godoy, a nobleman and royal guard who exerted significant influence over the country’s policies. During the early years of the French Revolution, Spain remained neutral, preventing the dissemination of revolutionary ideas within its borders. However, when King Louis XVI of France was guillotined, Spain declared war on France.
Early Conflicts and the Treaty of Basel
Spanish troops, commanded by General Ricardos, initially invaded France and achieved several victories. However, after General Ricardos’ death, French forces conquered Spanish territory, reaching the Ebro River. This forced Spain to sue for peace, signing the Treaty of Basel. Under this treaty, Spain became an ally of France against England, and France ceded half of the island of Santo Domingo (which would later become Haiti).
The Trafalgar Disaster and Growing Tensions
The alliance with France led to conflict with England, culminating in the Battle of Trafalgar. In this decisive naval battle, the combined French and Spanish fleets were defeated by the British fleet commanded by Admiral Horatio Nelson. The Spanish people grew increasingly alarmed by the presence of French troops and the absence of their King, who had been summoned to Bayonne by Napoleon.
The War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Uprising in Madrid
In 1808, when the people of Madrid learned that the royal family was about to leave the palace, they forcibly prevented the carriages from departing towards France. This led to clashes with French troops under General Murat, particularly around the Puerta del Sol. These events marked the beginning of the War of Independence.
Stages of the War
The war can be divided into three stages:
- Initial Resistance (May-July 1808): This stage saw widespread uprisings throughout Spain. A key victory occurred in July 1808 when General Castaños defeated a French army attempting to occupy Andalusia.
- Napoleon’s Intervention (1808-1813): Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Madrid to install his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne. This period saw intense fighting, including guerrilla warfare led by figures like the priest Jerónimo Merino and Juan Martín Díez, “El Empecinado.” Several cities, including Zaragoza and Gerona, fiercely resisted the French. Notable figures of resistance included Agustina de Aragón.
- British Intervention and Liberation (1813-1814): A British army commanded by the Duke of Wellington landed in Lisbon. Allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces defeated the French at the Battle of Salamanca and the Battle of Vitoria. These victories forced the French to withdraw from Spain, and Joseph Bonaparte fled. Many Spaniards who had collaborated with the French regime (known as afrancesados) also left the country.
The Return of Ferdinand VII and the Rise of Liberalism
While the war raged, many Spanish citizens embraced the liberal ideas of the French Revolution. They believed that Spain needed a change and convened a Cortes (parliament) in the city of Cadiz.
The Cadiz Cortes and the Constitution of 1812
Formation of the Cortes
The Cortes convened in Cadiz, the only major Spanish city free from French control. Deputies from across Spain, risking their lives to bypass French lines, arrived in Cadiz. Representatives from Spanish America also participated, divided between those who favored a new political regime for Spain and those who supported the continuation of absolutism. The Cortes decided to meet in a single chamber, rather than being divided by traditional estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners).
Key Principles and Objectives
The Cortes’ deliberations focused on several key principles:
- Popular Sovereignty: The Cortes asserted that sovereignty resided in the people.
- Equality Before the Law: All citizens were to be equal under the law.
- Constitutionalism: The Cortes aimed to draft a constitution, which would be the first in Spain’s history (the one drafted by Napoleon in Bayonne was not considered legitimate).
The Constitution of 1812
A Landmark Document
The Spanish Constitution of 1812, also known as “La Pepa,” was promulgated on March 19, 1812. It was considered the first true constitution in Spain. The US Constitution of 1787 was the first in the world, and the French Constitution of 1791 was the first in Europe. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was the first in Europe to follow the American model.
Key Provisions
The Constitution proclaimed national sovereignty and the separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial). It guaranteed a range of political freedoms, including freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and freedom of expression (but not freedom of religion, as Catholicism remained the official state religion). It also established the principle of equality before the law and mandated free elementary education. The Constitution opposed the monopolies held by guilds and promoted a free market. Suffrage was not direct; citizens voted for electors who then chose the deputies.
Legacy
The Constitution of 1812 represented the first serious attempt to rationalize the Spanish state and the exercise of power based on the principles of liberalism. It had a profound impact on Spanish and Latin American history, serving as a model for future constitutions and inspiring liberal movements throughout the 19th century.