The Stuart and Hanoverian Dynasties: 17th and 18th Century Britain
The Stuart Period
The Stuarts: Charles I, the English Civil Wars, Oliver Cromwell, Restoration
Tudors to Stuarts: Elizabeth I established the Church of England, Protestant in religion but Catholic in ceremony. Protestants were divided between High Church and ‘Puritan’ stripped-down versions. Elizabeth’s heir was James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots but raised Protestant. His mother fled Scotland when he was one year old.
Tudors to Stuarts in Scotland
In Scotland, the King was not the head of the church. The Church was governed by a General Assembly, following hard-line Presbyterian (Calvinist) principles. James believed in the divine right of kings, claiming absolute authority in state and church. By 1603, Elizabeth’s health worsened, and ministers approached James about succession.
Elizabeth’s Legacy
Elizabeth I restored Protestantism, maintained Royal Supremacy, and protected England against foreign invasion, such as defeating the Spanish Armada in 1588, known as “The Protestant Wind”. Popularly known as ‘Good Queen Bess’, she ruled over a ‘golden age’ of English heritage, literature, art, and learning.
James I & VI
James was proclaimed King of England six hours after Elizabeth’s death. His aims as ‘Rex Pacificus’ were to reconcile Catholics and Protestants, end Britain’s conflict with Spain, and unite England and Scotland into Great Britain (unsuccessful). Peace was established with Spain through the Somerset House Treaty after 22 years of war.
The Gunpowder Plot (1605)
A group of Catholic plotters, including aristocrats Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy, planned to blow up Parliament due to disappointment over the lack of Catholic emancipation. The plot involved hiding 35 barrels of gunpowder under the House of Lords. Guy Fawkes was discovered and arrested on November 4, 1605. He confessed under torture to “blow the king back to Scotland.” The leaders were executed, and Bonfire Night (November 5th) was established.
Royal Supremacy under James I
Puritans demanded the removal of ‘Popish’ elements from the English church. At the Hampton Court Conference, James reasserted Royal Supremacy. He authorized the King James Bible, still a standard text today.
The Union
James sought to unite England and Scotland, as they shared language and religion. The English Parliament opposed, fearing loss of power. James declared himself King of Great Britain and introduced the Union Jack flag. Extravagant spending on court and Scottish favorites left the Crown nearly bankrupt.
James and Parliament
James called various Parliaments to raise taxes. Parliament resisted funding James’ excesses and opposed his union plans. These conflicts marked the beginning of Crown vs. Parliament tensions. James died in 1625; his vision of union remained unrealized.
Charles I
Charles I was crowned in February 1626 with a five-hour High Church ceremony. He believed in absolute monarchy, similar to James I. He married the French Catholic princess Henrietta-Maria, a marriage unpopular with Parliament. Charles ruled without Parliament, relying on royal prerogatives like Ship Money.
Ship Money
Ship Money was a levy on coastal towns for naval defense, extended to all towns during peacetime. Parliament opposed it as “no taxation without representation.”
Charles I & Puritans
Puritans viewed reformation as incomplete and opposed “Papism.” Archbishop William Laud’s policies increased divisions, with Puritans seeing him as an enemy of Protestantism. Critics faced harsh punishment, such as mutilation.
The Prayer Book Riots (1637)
Charles attempted to impose the Book of Common Prayer on Scotland, provoking verbal and physical protests. Organized resistance was led by the Covenanters.
Religion and Rebellion
The Covenanters’ protests evolved into open rebellion. The Scottish Covenant was signed, raising a strong army. Charles recalled Parliament after 11 years to seek funds to fight the Scots.
The Short Parliament
Parliament was recalled to address taxation issues but was dissolved after a month due to old grievances resurfacing. A key opponent was John Pym, who accused Charles of Catholic conspiracies.
John Pym & Parliament
John Pym believed Charles’ policies were part of a Catholic conspiracy. He prepared a list of grievances over 11 years. Charles attempted to fund the fight against the Scots without Parliament, leading to disaster.
The Grand Remonstrance
Pym mobilized Parliament against Charles, abolishing Ship Money and establishing that Parliament must meet every three years and could not be dissolved by the king. The Earl of Strafford was removed.
Ireland Erupts
Strafford’s execution left a power vacuum in Ireland. Irish Catholics rebelled against Protestant settlers, with atrocities horrifying Protestant Britain. Rumors spread that Irish rebels acted on Charles’ orders.
The Long Parliament
Pym pushed for further constitutional changes, dividing Parliament into pro- and anti-Charles factions. This led to long and bitter debates. In January 1642, Charles entered Parliament with guards to arrest five MPs, including Pym. The MPs escaped, with Charles famously saying, “I see my birds have flown.”
A Divided Nation
By attempting to arrest political leaders, Charles showed himself as a tyrant for targeting Parliament and impotent for failing to succeed. Parliament and the country became polarized in support of the King or Parliament. London turned against Charles; trained militias (Trained Bands) formed.
The Nation Divides
Pym declared Parliament needed protection from the King. Parliament raised an army, dividing the country. Divisions were not regional but within families, towns, and friendships. Thousands of letters reveal personal moral dilemmas. In August 1642, Charles raised his standard at Nottingham, declaring war on Parliament.
The English Civil War Begins
In October 1642, the first battle took place at Edge Hill. The war dragged on with local conflicts. Parliament held London, the Midlands, and the South-East. Charles sought strongholds in the North and South-West.
Civil War Developments (1643)
By autumn 1643, Parliament seemed near defeat. Royalists took Bristol; the King’s HQ was established in Oxford. Pym, dying of cancer, secured an alliance with Scottish Covenanters. The ‘Solemn League & The Covenant’ gave Parliament a military advantage.
The British Wars and Turning Point
In July 1644, at the Battle of Marston Moor near York, Parliamentary forces and Covenanters defeated the Royalist army. It was the bloodiest battle of the war and effectively ended the First Civil War.
The New Model Army
In February 1645, Cromwell created the New Model Army, England’s first professional army. Officers were chosen by merit, not rank. In June 1645, the Battle of Naseby tested the New Model Army. Royalist forces, including English chivalry, were defeated.
A Radical Military Force
The New Model Army became a dominant power, led by Sir Thomas Fairfax. It contained radical religious and political elements like Levellers, Quakers, Diggers, and Baptists. They advocated two principles: the state should not influence religious beliefs, and Charles was a tyrant.
The Second Civil War
Presbyterian factions sought to impose one religion. The New Model Army supported Protestant religious freedom and political reform. Charles allied with Scottish Presbyterians against Parliament. In August 1648, at the Battle of Preston, Cromwell annihilated the Scottish Royalist army. Parliament was betrayed by both Charles and Scottish forces.
Parliament Purged
In December 1648, Colonel Pride purged Parliament of 150 MPs (‘Pride’s Purge’). The Rump Parliament (50+ independents) proclaimed itself the supreme power.
The Trial of Charles I
Charles I was accused of high treason for causing war-related deaths (approximately 180,000). He refused to plead or recognize the court. A jury of Commons members condemned Charles to death.
The Execution of Charles I
On January 30, 1649, Charles was executed outside the Banqueting House, shocking Europe. Parliament abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, establishing a Republic.
Cromwell in Ireland
In 1649, Cromwell led military campaigns against combined Catholic and Royalist forces. Atrocities were committed in suppressing rebellions.
The Third Civil War
Cromwell defeated Scottish ambitions with victories in Scotland and at the Battle of Worcester (September 1651). Charles II fled into exile (‘Royal Oak’ story). England occupied Scotland under military rule.
The Commonwealth
Cromwell closed the Rump Parliament and took control. He formed the ‘Barebones Parliament’ and established the Protectorate, with himself as Lord Protector. Major-Generals acted as military governors. Puritan objectives were enforced.
The Protectorate
Cromwell refused the title of King but ruled as Lord Protector. He died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard Cromwell. The Republic collapsed, and Charles II was invited to the throne in 1659.
Oliver Cromwell’s Legacy
Cromwell rose through merit, not corruption. He brought stability during anarchy and advocated religious toleration (e.g., Jews were invited back). He acted as a dictator, purging opposition, and was criticized for abandoning radical principles and committing atrocities in Ireland.
Historical Impact
The 1640s-1650s saw three English Civil Wars, regicide, religious turmoil, and radical ideas. It saw the establishment of England’s first standing army, the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords, and the emergence of Levellers (social reform) and Diggers (proto-communism).
What Just Happened?
The period was turbulent but not a complete revolution. Parliament fought for shared sovereignty with the Crown. Radicals sought social and religious reforms far ahead of their time.
Cromwell and Restoration
The Death of Cromwell
Cromwell died in September 1658 and was given a massive state funeral. It was unclear whether the Protectorate would survive. His son, Richard Cromwell, took over (“Tumbledown Dick”). He was not as strong or charismatic as his father and faced a military coup if he didn’t recall the ‘Rump’ Parliament. He abdicated in 1659.
Vacuum of Power
The Rump was recalled; the Protectorate was abolished, and the Commonwealth was re-established. The political situation turned into anarchy with lots of political infighting and proposals for the way forward. Radical political groups (e.g., Levellers) were active again. The economy was failing due to uncertainty. A strong state began to collapse.
General George Monck
General George Monck started the Civil War as a Parliamentarian but switched to being a Monarchist. He was captured in battle and imprisoned. He took an oath of loyalty to Parliament in 1646 and became close to Cromwell during campaigns. He served as Cromwell’s Major-General in Scotland during the Republic.
The Convention Parliament
In 1659, Monck marched down from Scotland with his army (7,000 troops). There were widespread calls for a ‘free’ Parliament. The ‘Long’ Parliament was recalled and ordered its own dissolution. In March 1660, the ‘Convention’ Parliament convened, divided 50/50 between Parliamentarians and Royalists. An invitation was sent to Charles Stuart in exile.
The Restoration
Terms included a general amnesty except for Regicides. Charles Stuart accepted the terms and returned to England in May 1660. He received a popular reception as he progressed to London, with a rapturous reception in London, though not everyone was happy.
Double Death for Regicides
Cromwell and Henry Ireton’s bodies were exhumed and decapitated. Eleven Regicides were hanged, drawn, and quartered. No other acts of revenge occurred. Charles II was crowned in May 1661. The ‘Cavalier’ Parliament (March 1661) appeared more vindictive than the king. High Church Anglicans were restored to power.
A Popular King
Quote by the Earl of Rochester: “We have a pretty witty King, and whose word no man relies on; He never said a foolish thing, and never did a wise one.”
An Unwise Marriage
In May 1662, Charles married the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza, which was not popular with anti-Papists. The marriage dowry included Tangiers and Bombay.
Happy Days Are Here Again?
It was a time of celebration: Christmas was officially restored, and Puritans were no longer in power. Theatres reopened (“Restoration Comedy”), and women were allowed to act on stage. It was a rich period in literature encouraged at court.
The Clarendon Code
A series of acts to repress non-Anglican Christian worship targeted Catholics and other Protestants, including Puritans. It marked a victory for Parliament over the Crown. The Puritan problem was displaced, not destroyed (e.g., in Belfast and Boston). Heavy press censorship began, with the rise of the Oxford & Cambridge University Presses.
Religious Persecution
- Corporation Act (1661): Municipal officeholders had to swear allegiance to the Church of England.
- Act of Uniformity (1662): Anglican Book of Common Prayer made obligatory.
- Conventicle Act (1664): Religious assemblies of more than five people became illegal.
- Five Mile Act: Non-Conformist ministers had to move five miles away from their former congregations.
Many Non-Conformists began migrating to North America and Caribbean colonies.
Pepys, Newton, & Royal Society
Puritan-minded individuals were horrified by the decadence of Charles II’s court. Samuel Pepys was an excellent diarist of the period. The start of the Royal Society, patronized by Charles II, included famous members like Isaac Newton and Christopher Wren. It encouraged scientific debate and experimentation. In the summer of 1664, Halley’s Comet appeared. England entered the Second Dutch War (main trade rival).
666 – The Number of the Beast
The plague hit England in 1665, with 8,000 deaths in London’s first week. 40,000 dogs were slaughtered to contain the infection. Eventually, 18% of London’s population died. Religious extremists grew alarmed about the approaching year 1666.
The Great Fire of London
The Great Fire of London started in a baker’s shop on Pudding Lane. The Mayor of London dismissed it, saying, “A woman could piss it out.” The fire spread quickly due to wooden medieval buildings and even spread along London Bridge. Charles II and his brother James were actively involved in firefighting. Most of old London was destroyed: 13,200 houses, 400 streets, 87 churches, the Guildhall, and St. Paul’s Cathedral, with £10,000,000 in damages. Rebuilding efforts were led by Sir Christopher Wren, with classical designs often viewed as “Papist.”
The Second Dutch War (1665–1667)
England attempted to seize Dutch possessions in North America and Africa. It began with victory at the Battle of Lowestoft and the capture of New Amsterdam, renamed New York. It ended in national calamity when the Dutch fleet destroyed English ships in the Medway (1667).
Our King Does Not Protect Us
Charles II faced growing discontent, with debate over whether to emulate the Dutch or French political model. Louis XIV’s model of absolute monarchy became a European superpower.
Treaty of Dover (1670)
This was a secret treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV. Louis paid Charles £160,000 annually. Charles promised to convert to Catholicism when politically feasible, and Louis provided 6,000 troops to support the conversion.
Origin of Political Parties
Tories: Royalist, High Anglican, anti-Nonconformist. Whigs: Parliamentary, anti-Catholic, included Anglicans and Nonconformists.
The Cavalier Parliament (1670s)
Parliament was alienated by Charles’ wars and religious policies. In 1672, Charles issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence (toleration for all religions). Parliament forced Charles to withdraw the declaration and pass the Test Act (required public officials to accept Anglicanism). Charles entered the Third Dutch War in support of Louis XIV.
The Cavalier Parliament (1670s)
By 1674, England had gained nothing from the Dutch War. Parliament refused further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. Catherine of Braganza failed to produce an heir, and Charles had 16 recognized bastards. The Crown would pass to his Catholic brother James, Duke of York. Charles arranged for James’ daughter Mary to marry William of Orange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands.
The Popish Plot (1678)
Titus Oates warned of a Catholic plot to kill the King with Queen Catherine’s complicity. It was likely false; the King didn’t believe it but unleashed a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria. Parliament took it seriously; investigations led to numerous innocents being executed. Details of the Treaty of Dover emerged.
The Exclusion Bill; Whigs & Tories
The Earl of Shaftesbury (Whig) opposed James’ succession and introduced the Exclusion Bill to block James from the throne. Some Whigs proposed Charles’ favorite bastard, the Duke of Monmouth (Protestant), as heir. Tories opposed the bill; Whigs supported it. Charles dissolved three Parliaments between 1679-1681 to prevent the bill’s passage.
Gentlemen, Go Home to Your Families
In 1681, Charles convened Parliament in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold, then dissolved it for the last time during his reign. The Earl of Shaftesbury fled to Holland after being accused of treason. The Rye House Plot (a Whig plot to assassinate Charles) was foiled. Leaders were executed, and the Duke of Monmouth was implicated and fled into exile.
Charles II Dies
James, Duke of York, gained more influence at court. Catholics imprisoned for the Popish Plot were released. On February 6, 1685, Charles died of a stroke. He supposedly converted to Catholicism on his deathbed. Historians’ views: Whigs: “A terrible despot.” Tories: “A benevolent monarch.” Charles’ Catholic brother, James II, succeeded him.
James II & James VII of Scotland
James married Anne Hyde in the 1660s; daughters Mary (b. 1662) and Anne (b. 1665). Mary married William of Orange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands. James secretly converted to Catholicism in the late 1660s.
The Monmouth Rebellion (1685)
In June 1685, the Duke of Monmouth led an armed rebellion in SW England. The rebellion was crushed at the Battle of Sedgemoor. Monmouth was captured and executed for treason. Judge Jeffreys’ “Bloody Assizes” saw 250 rebels hanged and thousands transported to the Caribbean.
The Declaration of Indulgence
James enlarged the standing army and bypassed the Test Act to give Catholics high-ranking posts. Parliament opposed, so James dissolved it in November 1685. In 1687, he issued the Declaration of Indulgence (Liberty of Conscience), negating laws punishing Catholics and Non-Conformists. He alienated Anglican/Tory supporters and purged opponents from public office.
A Son & Heir
His Italian Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to James Francis Edward Stuart (June 10, 1688), sparking fears of a direct Catholic succession. Protestant heirs Mary and Anne from his first marriage were sidelined.
The Immortal Seven
Rumors spread that James’ son was smuggled into the bedchamber. Seven prominent Protestants wrote to William of Orange, inviting him to invade for the Protestant cause.
The Glorious Revolution (1688)
William prepared an invasion fleet over the summer. On November 5, 1688, he landed in Brixham, Devon, with 11,000 foot soldiers and 4,000 cavalry. He promised to maintain England’s liberties and Protestant religion. He marched eastward, gaining widespread support. Protestant officers and nobles, including Lord Churchill, defected to William. James’ daughter Anne also supported William. James fled London after throwing the Royal Seal into the Thames (December 11, 1688). He was arrested in disguise but later allowed to escape to France.
Convention Parliament & Aftermath
In January 1689, William summoned the Convention Parliament to decide the monarchy’s future. Parliament declared the throne vacant, stating James had abdicated. The Crown was offered to William and Mary; they were crowned in April 1689. Scotland recognized them as rulers.
Key Legislation
Bill of Rights (1689): Monarch could not suspend laws, raise taxes, or maintain a standing army without Parliament’s approval. Established Anne (James’ second daughter) as the next in line. Act of Religious Toleration (1689): Granted toleration to some Protestant Non-Conformists.
The 1700s Period, Part 1
William & Mary
Parliament declared the throne vacant after James II’s abdication (Declaration of Right). The Crown was not offered to James’ son. William and Mary were crowned in April 1689. Scotland also accepted William and Mary as their rulers. The Act of Religious Toleration (1689) granted toleration to some Protestant nonconformists. In December 1689, the Bill of Rights was passed: the Monarch could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, no taxes or standing army without Parliamentary approval. It established Anne (James’ second daughter) as next in line, bypassing 40+ Catholics in favor of the Protestant House of Hanover. Jacobites opposed the succession.
Parliament Now in Control
England became a constitutional monarchy. 23% of the male population was eligible to vote. Parliament controlled royal finances, had to meet every three years, and alone could approve a standing army or decide on the royal succession.
The Battle of the Boyne (1690)
Part of a European power struggle fought in Ireland, William III defeated James II. Ireland was pacified; James fled to France, where he remained in exile. Jacobite struggles persisted for decades.
Jacobite Risings in Scotland
From 1689-1691, there were small-scale Jacobite uprisings in the Scottish Highlands. William offered pardons to clan leaders who pledged allegiance by a set date. The Chief of the McDonald clan missed the deadline by one day, leading to the Massacre of Glencoe (1692), where 37 members of the clan were killed after hosting soldiers for 17 days.
London’s Rise in Importance
London became Europe’s largest city with 700,000 residents (10% of England’s population). Financial power grew: the Bank of England was established in 1694. London overtook Amsterdam as Europe’s financial capital. William spent much of the 1690s campaigning in Europe against Louis XIV.
Mary and William’s Deaths
Mary II died of smallpox in 1694; William ruled alone until his death in 1702. He died after a horse accident (mole burrow incident). Jacobites celebrated the mole as “that little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat.” He was succeeded by Anne, his sister-in-law.
Queen Anne: The Last Stuart
Queen Anne married Prince George of Denmark; she had 18 pregnancies but no surviving heirs. The Act of Settlement (1701) stated that the Crown would pass to Sophia, Electress of Hanover (granddaughter of James I). The Scottish Parliament was not consulted. The Scottish Parliament passed the Act of Security to choose their own monarch.
Towards Union
The English Parliament feared Scotland’s alliance with France (Auld Alliance). They passed the Alien Act (1705), imposing economic sanctions and making Scottish residents in England ‘aliens.’ Revocation required Scotland to repeal the Act of Security or unite with England. Scotland, facing economic hardship (Darien Project failure), negotiated union.
The Act of Union (1707)
Queen Anne appointed commissioners to negotiate. In March 1707, the Act of Union was passed. England and Scotland formed Great Britain with one Parliament at Westminster. Debt from the Darien Project was paid off. There were some protests in Scotland; the union weakened the Jacobite cause.
Scottish Contributions
Innovations included the steam engine, telephone, television, radar, decimal point, logarithms, fingerprinting, ultrasound scanner, insulin, penicillin, pneumatic tire, refrigerator, flush toilet, and waterproof coat.
Whigs & Tories
Whigs and Tories became established political factions with their own clubs, coffeehouses, and newspapers. They were divided over involvement in the War of Spanish Succession. Queen Anne favored the Tories and created Tory peers to balance Parliament.
Anne’s Legacy
Anne died in 1714 without an heir (stroke). Her reign was relatively stable and prosperous. Britain freed itself from religious and political extremism. Union with Scotland allowed for overseas expansion. Writers like Alexander Pope, Daniel Defoe, and Jonathan Swift flourished. Architecture developed grandiose styles (e.g., Blenheim Palace, Castle Howard).
The 1700s, Part 2
The Hanoverian Succession
Sophia of Hanover (James I’s descendant) died shortly before ascending. Her son, The Elector of Hanover, became King George I in October 1714 at age 54. He did not initially speak English. The succession was peaceful; no Jacobite rising occurred. A Regent Council was formed to oversee George I, highlighting Parliament’s dominance over the Crown. Whigs won the 1715 elections decisively.
George I and Jacobite Rebellions
In 1715, there was a Jacobite rebellion led by Lord Mar and James II’s son (James III/The Old Pretender). It was poorly funded, poorly planned, and unable to raise support; it was defeated within months. James escaped to France and never returned. In 1719, there was a second Jacobite rebellion, backed by Spain. Only 300 Spanish troops reached Scotland. A British warship destroyed their castle; Jacobite clans dispersed, and Spanish troops were arrested.
Sir Robert Walpole and South Sea Bubble
Sir Robert Walpole, a Norfolk squire, part of the new-moneyed class, rose to prominence by uniting the Whig party. He effectively handled the South Sea Bubble crisis in 1720, a stock bubble that caused financial turmoil, with many losing fortunes. Walpole rescheduled debts and compensated some losses, stabilizing the economy. He used royal patronage to control Parliament, expanded the civil service, and distributed political appointments. He served as Prime Minister until 1742, remaining Britain’s longest-serving Prime Minister.
The Golden Age of British Piracy (1650s–1730s)
Pirates emerged from privateers hired by Britain to attack Spanish and French ships during wars. After the War of Spanish Succession, many became independent pirates. They briefly established the ‘Pirate Republic’ in Nassau, Bahamas. The Royal Navy eventually suppressed piracy through brutal punishments.
Commercial Expansion
The Bank of England (1694) was founded by Scotsman William Paterson to manage national debt and issue banknotes. Joint-stock companies facilitated colonial trade. Notable was the East India Company (EIC), which traded with China and controlled parts of India.
The East India Company
The East India Company amassed an army of over 200,000, governed regions under the guise of Mughal authority, and enforced cash-crop farming, contributing to the Bengal Famine (1769).
Battle of Culloden, Prince Charlie
In July 1745, ‘The Young Pretender’ (Bonnie Prince Charlie, grandson of James II) landed in Scotland. He was initially successful, defeating British forces at Prestonpans. He advanced into England but lacked expected support and troops from Louis XV. In April 1746, he was defeated at the Battle of Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland (‘Butcher Cumberland’). Jacobites were severely persecuted; the rebellion marked the last battle on British soil.
William Pitt & The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
William Pitt advocated overseas expansion and naval dominance. During the Seven Years’ War, there were early British defeats (e.g., loss of Menorca). Pitt’s leadership shifted the tide; major victories included the Battle of Minden, the capture of Quebec by General Wolfe, and naval dominance at Quiberon Bay. By 1760, Britain controlled French possessions in India and the Caribbean.
Britain & The Slave Trade
British ships transported over 3 million Africans, primarily to the Caribbean and North America. Sugar production in Jamaica became Britain’s most lucrative industry. The trade was deregulated in the 1700s, involving both large investors and small traders. Slave trade and sugar taxes enriched the government. The mortality rate on the Middle Passage was approximately 10%.
The American Revolution (1775–1783)
Colonies resisted British taxation without representation. The Stamp Act (1765) and Coercive Acts led to protests (e.g., Boston Tea Party). In April 1775, war began at Lexington & Concord. The Continental Army was formed, led by George Washington. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson. It emphasized unalienable rights and portrayed George III as a tyrant. France supported American forces, tipping the balance. In 1781, the British defeat at Yorktown led to surrender by General Cornwallis.
Aftermath of the American Revolution
Britain faced a national disaster, with George III considering abdication. Britain lost its American colonies but began focusing on its global empire, including India and the Caribbean.
The 1800s, Part 1
Revolution, Repression, & Reform: The French Revolution (1789)
Polite British society was horrified by the French Revolution. Some, like Thomas Paine (“The Rights of Man”), were inspired by its ideals. The French Republic declared war on Britain, beginning an 18-year conflict. The war cost Britain more in men and money than any previous conflict. The British monarchy had to adapt and survive during this period.
The British Reaction
George III was descending into madness. The British aristocracy was mortified by the fate of French nobles. Some politicians saw the Revolution as France’s version of England’s 1688 Glorious Revolution. Tory MP Edmund Burke warned against starting society “from scratch” in his book, Reflections on the French Revolution.
George III & Tory Dominance
Burke emphasized history and tradition as the basis of civilization. Initially, George, Prince of Wales, aligned with Whigs but later reconciled with his father and joined the Tories. Many Whigs, shocked by events in France, also shifted to the Tories, leaving the Whigs in opposition for a generation. George III became a symbol of stability and celebrated his Golden Jubilee in 1810 despite his mental decline. George, Prince of Wales, as Prince Regent, became infamous for his extravagant lifestyle and mounting debts.
The Abolition of the Slave Trade
The campaign began in the 1750s, spearheaded by Quakers. It aligned with Anglican evangelists from Clapham Common and MP William Wilberforce. Key events included the Somerset Case (1772), which ruled slavery illegal in England, and the Zong Massacre, where over 130 enslaved Africans were thrown overboard, leading to public outrage. Olaudah Equiano’s autobiography and Thomas Clarkson’s tireless campaigning influenced public opinion. The Abolition of the Slave Trade Act passed in 1807 despite opposition from the powerful slave trade lobby. The Royal Navy’s West Africa Squadron patrolled for illegal slave ships. Slavery itself was abolished in British colonies in 1833.
Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon’s French Empire grew in strength, threatening Britain. Key battles: Trafalgar (1805): British Navy, led by Admiral Nelson, defeated French and Spanish fleets. Peninsular War: Britain allied with Spain and Portugal to drive out the French. Waterloo (1815): Duke of Wellington’s forces decisively defeated Napoleon. Britain emerged with the largest empire in history, ruling 25% of the world’s population. Trouble at Home Post-war challenges included: 300,000 unemployed soldiers.High unemployment, trade depression, and poor harvests. Radical movements emerged: Luddites destroyed industrial machinery. 1819: The Peterloo Massacre occurred when troops dispersed a peaceful rally in Manchester, killing 11. Cato Street Conspiracy plotted to assassinate the Cabinet but was foiled. Parliamentary Reform The Parliamentary system was outdated: Over-representation of rural areas. Major industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham lacked representation. Rotten boroughs allowed seats to be bought. Reforms: 1828: Repeal of the Test Act. 1829: Catholic Emancipation passed by Duke of Wellington despite Tory opposition. 1832: The Reform Bill passed, granting political representation to industrial and commercial middle classes.Social Reform Abolition of slavery in the British Empire (1833). Factory Act regulated child labor. First public education grants issued. 1835: Municipal Corporations Act made local councils elected bodies. Queen Victoria & The Victorian Era Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 and married Albert of Saxe-Coburg in 1840. Her reign marked a period of stability and economic prosperity. Sir Robert Peel & The Corn Laws Peel’s Tamworth Manifesto laid the foundation for the Conservative Party. Corn Laws protected British corn prices but were opposed by urban free traders. Anti-Corn Law League formed in 1839. Peel, as Home Secretary, created the Metropolitan Police Force. Repealed Corn Laws in 1846 with Whig support but faced Tory opposition. Peel resigned in 1846 after political defeat, cementing his legacy as a reformer.
industrial revolution Life Before the Industrial Revolution Work: 80% of people worked in subsistence farming. Cottage industries produced handmade goods (cloth, pottery, bread, etc.). Towns: Emerging cities: Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow. The Industrial Revolution Began in 1750 in Great Britain. Machines replaced hand labor, increasing production speed. Water and steam power revolutionized energy use. Factories centralized production, surpassing cottage industries. Steam Power Steam Engines: Used wood or coal to generate power. Factories no longer needed to be near rivers; relocated near raw materials and labor. Transportation Advancements Canals & Roads: Improved to transport raw materials and goods efficiently. Railroads: Steam locomotives (1830s) reduced transportation costs. Boosted the iron and steel industries and created new jobs. Why England First? Political Stability: No civil strife; government supported trade and industry. Geography & Resources: Navigable rivers, abundant coal and iron supplies. Agriculture: Enclosure Movement increased food production and displaced farmers,creating a labor force for factories. Social Structure: Large middle class and flexible labor mobility. Banking: Strong banking system provided loans and encouraged investment. Key Inventions Textile Industry: John Kay’s Flying Shuttle (1733): Increased weaving speed. James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny (1765): Spun thread 8x faster. Richard Arkwright’s Water Frame (1769): Powered textile machines with water. Samuel Crompton’s Spinning Mule (1779): Combined Spinning Jenny and Water Frame. Steel: Henry Bessemer (1850): Created a method to produce stronger, cheaper steel. Effects of the Industrial Revolution Economic Changes: Mass production and global trade expanded. Industrial capitalism emerged. Shift from agriculture to industry; factory jobs dominated. Social Changes: Rapid urbanization; most of the population moved to cities. Rise of the middle class; harsh conditions for workers. Child labor became widespread but was eventually addressed by reform. Political Changes: Reforms to regulate industries, improve workers’ rights, and abolish slavery. Trade unions emerged; new political ideologies like socialism and Marxism developed.
The Second War of Independence (War of 1812) Causes: British impressment of American sailors. US sovereignty and free trade under threat. US territorial ambitions in Canada. Key Events: US attempted to invade Canada; British captured Fort Detroit. British troops burned Washington, D.C., including the White House. US naval victories and Andrew Jackson’s leadership turned the tide. Battle of New Orleans: US victory (70 US vs. 2000 British casualties), fought after the peace treaty.
Ireland Protestant Ascendancy (1700s): Irish Catholics treated as second-class citizens. United Irishmen (1790s): Inspired by US and French Revolutions, fought for independence (leader: Wolfe Tone). Act of Union (1800): Imposed British control over Ireland.
The Great Famine (1840s) Causes: Potato blight devastated staple crop (50% in 1846; 75% in 1847). British absentee landlords prioritized beef exports. Impact: Over 1.1 million deaths from hunger and disease. 1 million immigrants fled, starting the Irish diaspora (e.g., ‘coffin ships’). Limited British aid; relied on relief efforts from Quakers and others. Legacy: Long-standing animosity toward British rule.
The Chartists (1838–1848) Goals: Universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and equal electoral districts. Key Events: Massive petitions and rallies, culminating in the 1848 Kennington rally. Legacy influenced the 19th-century labor movement.
Charles Dickens Britain’s most famous novelist. Addressed social issues like industrialization, poverty, and crime in works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield. Serialized storytelling made his works national events.
Charles Darwin Developed the Theory of Evolution (common ancestry, natural selection). Published On the Origin of Species (1859). By the 1870s, widely accepted in the scientific community.
The Great Exhibition (1851) Celebrated Britain’s industrial and imperial achievements. Held in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Featured exhibits from across the Empire. Symbolized economic prosperity and unity under Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.
The Crimean War (1853–1855) Cause: To limit Russian expansion into the declining Ottoman Empire. Notable Figures: Lord Palmerston: Advocated ‘gunboat diplomacy.’ Florence Nightingale: Revolutionized modern nursing Famous Event: Charge of the Light Brigade, immortalized by Tennyson’s poem.
The Indian Mutiny & British Raj (1857–1858) Trigger: Sepoy mutiny over cartridges greased with pig fat. Key Events: Siege of Delhi; atrocities committed on both sides. EIC troops regained control by 1858. Aftermath: East India Company replaced by direct British rule (the Raj). Queen Victoria declared Empress of India.
Liberals & Conservatives Formation of Parties: Liberals formed from Peelites, Whigs, and Radicals (1850s). Conservatives redefined under Disraeli in the 1860s. Key Figures: Gladstone: Advocated meritocracy, free markets, and Irish Home Rule. Disraeli: Emphasized ‘one-nation’ Toryism, social reform, and imperialism. Reforms: Reform Act 1867: Doubled the electorate; urban working classes gained the vote. Artisan’s Dwelling Act (1876): Improved housing conditions.
Ireland & Home Rule Movements: Irish Republican Brotherhood (Fenians) and constitutional Home Rule advocates gained traction. Charles Parnell emerged as a leader, collaborating with Gladstone. Challenges: Home Rule Bills (1886, 1891, 1893) failed to pass. Divisions between Nationalists and Unionists. Legacy: Home Rule postponed until WWI; radical nationalism grew.
Key Reforms and Events (Late Victorian Era) Gladstone’s First Ministry (1868–1874): Civil Service reforms and universal primary education. Extended franchise through the Third Reform Act (1884). Disraeli’s Legacy: Social reforms like the Employers & Workmen Act and council housing initiatives. Focused on ‘throne, altar, and empire.’ End of an Era: Queen Victoria’s death (1901) marked the transition to the Edwardian Age.