The Transformation of European Urban Society in the Middle Ages
1. The European Urban Renaissance
From the 11th century, a number of changes transformed medieval society in Europe. The cities revived, and a new social class emerged: the bourgeoisie. For the population, growth necessitated the expansion of arable land and increased agricultural yields. More farmers were needed to work the land, but life expectancy remained low.
The Medieval City: Agricultural expansion in the 11th century favored trade. Artisans created districts for artisans and merchants, known as boroughs, and they became part of the bourgeoisie.
Aspirations of the Bourgeoisie:
- Organize cities and their government to rid themselves of the feudal lords.
- Freedom to negotiate.
- Reform of inheritance and marriage laws.
The monarchs supported them and granted them letters of privileges, also called franchises or charters, which established their freedoms. In exchange for paying city taxes to the king, they were freed from their feudal lords. This revenue was utilized to cover the king’s struggles against the nobility and to increase municipal domains.
Institutions: The burgesses were elected to council meetings, where under the leadership of a mayor, they met at the town hall and formed a privileged group known as urban patricians.
Life in the Cities: Cities were surrounded by walls. The church organized and dominated the market square. Streets were narrow and irregular, with houses closely packed together, often made of wood, leading to many fires. Inhabitants formed districts based on trades, and there was also a Jewish quarter, separated by a wall that closed at night. Eventually, neighborhoods formed outside the walls, known as suburbs. The unpaved streets had no sidewalks and were dirty, making the spread of disease, such as the plague, very easy.
Towards the End of Feudalism: From the 12th century, economic and social changes also affected political power. The feudal nobility gradually saw a reduction in their power, while kings grew stronger, ruling over larger territories.
The Consolidation of Power of the King: While the nobility and the church continued to hold significant power, the feudal compacts weakened, and the king expanded control over people and territory, forming a kingdom. The monarchy increased its power for several reasons:
- The increase of domains: through legacies from vassals, marriage, conquest, or land purchases.
- The support of the bourgeoisie: the charter of privileges granted by the king allowed them to pay taxes and fund the administration and army, which were used to combat the nobility.
- The recovery and imposition of Roman law by the king, which justified his power over the population, who were his subjects.
New Institutions: Royal Councils were formed by the king’s closest advisors, collaborating with the government and administration. Legislatures were composed of the three social classes (clergy, nobility, bourgeoisie), and only the king could summon them. They were presided over by the monarch, and each estate had a vote. The functions of these assemblies were limited, primarily deciding on economic issues like tax approvals to support the monarchy. Different kingdoms had various names for their assemblies: Cortes in Aragon and Castile, Parliament in England, Estates General in France, and Diet in the Germanic Empire. The church continued to exert great influence, accumulating property and land, becoming a significant feudal power. Kings attempted to control the appointment of bishops and abbots, while the nobility coveted these positions, leading to corruption in ecclesiastical power. By the end of the 12th century, reactions began to change the situation, with mendicant orders and heresies questioning the church’s official conceptions, leading to the creation of the Inquisition.
The Expansion of the European Kingdoms: From the 12th century, monarchs expanded their borders and grew more powerful, leading to many wars between different kingdoms. The Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon expanded in the Iberian Peninsula. Castile competed with Portugal in the same expansion process, while the Crown of Aragon expanded against the Kingdom of Naples throughout the Mediterranean. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) was one of the most serious conflicts between France and England over British claims to the French crown. France won the war, which favored the consolidation of royal power against the feudal nobility.
The Crusades: In the 11th century, when the Turks conquered Jerusalem, Pope Urban II called for the liberation of the Holy Land. This initiated a series of military expeditions lasting nearly two centuries, known as the Crusades (defense of the cross, symbol of Christianity). As a consequence, the papacy increased its power and influence, trade developed between East and West (strengthening the role of the Crown of Aragon and the Italian cities), and contact between Christian and Muslim cultures intensified.
The Crisis in the Middle Ages:
Crisis and Agricultural Hunger: After years of prosperity, problems began in the early 14th century. Years of bad crops due to drought or excessive rain resulted in a lack of fertile land to till. Poor crop production caused food shortages, hunger, and malnutrition due to poor hygiene, with a high risk of epidemics and disease. In this context, the Black Death reached Europe. The plague and demographic crisis hit Europe at the end of 1347 when infected sailors arrived on a ship from Crimea, spreading across the continent. Two factors contributed to the spread of the plague:
- The chaotic growth of cities and the large number of people living in them. When the epidemic reached a city, it rapidly affected many residents.
- The expansion of trade, which facilitated contact between people from widely separated places. Many merchants became infected and carried the disease back to their regions or countries of origin.
This caused massive mortality, affecting all social strata equally.
Crisis and Conflict in the Countryside: The impact of the plague in rural areas was devastating: many regions were depopulated, leading to abandoned crops and reduced food production. Feudal lords, seeing their income reduced, increased taxes on the peasantry and forced them to remain on the land. The lack of food resulted in deteriorating living conditions and growing discontent among the rural population, leading to numerous anti-seigneurial revolts throughout Europe.
Crisis and Conflict in the City: Economic decline led to many losing their jobs. The plague especially affected urban centers due to overcrowding and poor conditions. Many people fled to the countryside, provoking riots in cities. Urban revolts were directed against the gentry and wealthy merchants, who governed the cities. They demanded more participation in city government and social improvements, such as higher wages and the right to work. Cities like Ghent, Paris, Florence, and Barcelona experienced these rebellions. Often, they sought to blame foreign elements, particularly the Jews, accusing them of causing the plague. Jewish neighborhoods in some cities were attacked, robbed, and many inhabitants were killed.
Urbanizing Culture: The city promoted a new culture. Until the 11th century, culture was largely confined to monasteries and religious matters, with even the feudal aristocracy showing little interest in reading and writing. In the 12th and 13th centuries, thought and culture gained momentum. New educational centers were established in the early 12th century. Despite this, the population remained largely illiterate.
Education:
- Schools: Controlled by bishops, where students learned to read and write.
- Universities: Teacher and student associations seeking independence from bishops. Studies were long, lasting from 16 to 35 years.
Scientific and Technical Advances: Many scientific and technical knowledge reached Europe from the East, including Arabic numerals, which replaced Roman numerals, gunpowder, and paper from China. New methods for measuring time were developed in astronomy, along with astronomical tables and celestial maps. The first mechanical clocks were created, placed in the towers of some municipalities. Remarkable advancements in maritime technology were made, including the use of the compass, and by the end of the 12th century, marine charts began to be used in Venice. More resilient and faster boats were produced, facilitating trade and contributing to the geographical discoveries that began in the 15th century.
The Gothic Buildings: New construction elements allowed for taller and lighter buildings compared to Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch, which was lighter, and the vault formed by the diagonal crossing of two pointed arches supported by four pillars were utilized. The exterior buttresses were separated from the wall, allowing for the distribution of the weight of the vaults. This system enabled the removal of the thick walls of Romanesque buildings, allowing for large windows that let in more light. Cathedrals were designed with longitudinal plans consisting of three or five naves, with the central nave being the highest.