The Troubadours: History, Poetry, and Courtly Love
The Troubadours
History and Origins
Troubadours were lyric poets who flourished in Occitania (southern France) during the 12th and 13th centuries. Their influence extended to Catalonia, where poets adapted the Occitan language and troubadour traditions. The first exhibition of poetry in a Romance language, Occitan, emerged in the 12th century. Catalan troubadours initially composed in Occitan, a practice that continued until the 15th century with poets like Ausias March, marking the end of the troubadour tradition in Catalonia.
Characteristics of Troubadour Poetry
Troubadour poetry is characterized by its elegant, sentimental, and emotional style. These poets were the authors of their compositions, unlike Latin poets who primarily versified religious texts for individual reading. Troubadours composed songs in the vernacular for a courtly audience, requiring savant, literary, and musical training.
Sources of Information
Our knowledge of troubadours comes from various sources:
- Lives: Biographical data and personality sketches included in songbooks.
- Razos: Commentaries on the motivations and circumstances surrounding specific poems.
Troubadours, Minstrels, and Performers
Troubadours composed both the music and lyrics of their songs. Minstrels and jongleurs entertained audiences by performing these songs. Some minstrels were also epic poets, creating and performing songs based on historical facts and legends. They possessed the freedom to improvise and adapt passages to suit the public’s taste. Other minstrels acted as faithful transmitters of the troubadours’ original compositions.
Poetic Genres
- Canso: The most important genre, celebrating love and featuring a unique melody (5 to 7 verses and a chorus).
- Sirventes: Expressed attack, anger, controversy, and moral discourse. They often used the melody of a canso to address moral, political, literary, or personal themes.
- Planh: A lament for the death of a lord or patron.
- Alba: A love poem expressing the sorrow of separated lovers at dawn, often involving a watchman who ensured the lovers were not surprised by the gilòs (jealous husband) or lauzengiers (spies).
- Pastorela: A love poem depicting a dialogue between a shepherdess and a knight.
- Tenso: A debate between two troubadours on literary themes.
Courtly Love
Courtly love depicted a recurring situation: a powerful, married woman (the Lady) and her devoted lover (the troubadour). The Lady was served faithfully by the troubadour, mirroring the feudal relationship between a lord and vassal. Their relationship adhered to courtly values: loyalty, generosity, education, and refinement. Troubadours analyzed amorous passion, outlining four stages: fenhedor (timid), pregador (begging), entendedor (tolerated love), and drutz (lover).
Versification and Stanzas
Troubadour poetry exhibited formal rigor, with precise syllable counts and consonant rhymes. Stanzas and couplets were categorized as: unissonants (repeating rhymes), singulars (changing rhymes), dobles (rhyming in pairs), capcuades (the last verse rhymes with the first verse of the next stanza), and capfinades (the last word of a verse repeats as the first word of the next). Songs typically ended with a tornada (return).
Styles
Two main styles emerged:
- Trobar leu: Simple versification, accessible language, and ease of understanding.
- Trobar clus: Complex, unique, and conceptually challenging, requiring effort to understand.
- Trobar ric: Focused on formal beauty and complexity, prioritizing the poem’s form.
Ausias March (1397-1459)
Ausias March, born in Gandia, produced a unique and personal body of work comprising 128 compositions, primarily love poems and moral reflections.
Characteristics of March’s Compositions
- Use of Catalan as the literary language instead of Occitan.
- Loyalty to the troubadour structure (8 decasyllabic verses and a 4-line tornada).
- Construction of comparisons using imagery from diverse backgrounds, serving emotive, persuasive, and explanatory functions.
Structure of Comparisons
Each 8-verse stanza was divided into two parts: one addressing a general theme and the other a personal situation. These decasyllabic verses followed a caesura (4+6) and were introduced by repetitive forms (refrains). The use of the Lady’s name signaled a shift in focus, and the dichotomy between sensual and spiritual love was explored.
Influences
March’s poetry was influenced by Dante, Petrarch, and scholastic philosophy (particularly Saint Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle).
- Dante and Petrarch: March’s poetry, along with Dante’s, is considered more medieval in style, while Petrarch’s represents a transition towards the Renaissance. They influenced March’s use of imagery and treatment of the love object.
- Scholasticism: Scholasticism introduced a shift towards moral and didactic content in March’s non-love poetry. It sought to reconcile theology and philosophy.