The Turkish Political System: A Historical Overview
Chapter 17: Turkish Political System
1. From Ottoman Empire to Turkish Republic: The Evolution of the Constitution
One of Turkey’s major challenges lies in asserting its unique identity at the geographical and cultural crossroads it occupies. The last three-quarters of a century have witnessed a continuous struggle for this affirmation.
Before World War I, Turkey was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Empire’s defeat led to the creation of a distinct Turkish political entity. Until then, Turks constituted only a portion of the Empire’s population, ruled by the Ottoman elite. While Turkish was spoken, Arabic and Farsi dominated the court. Turkish began its resurgence as a written language only around 1912.
Today, the Republic of Turkey defines itself as a social, secular, and democratic state. The secular nature is particularly significant, considering the Ottoman Empire’s history where the head of state held both political (Sultan) and religious (Caliph) authority. Atatürk’s Turkish Revolution aimed to modernize the nation, with secularism as a driving force.
The Ottoman Empire’s first constitutional experience was in 1876, recognizing a parliamentary system. This period was short-lived due to a coup. The second constitutional period began in 1908 with the rise of the “Young Turks”, leading to the overthrow of Abdülhamid II. World War I, the Armistice of Mudros (1918), and the Allied occupation further destabilized the Empire.
The War of Independence (1919-1923) culminated in the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as President. Sovereignty shifted from the Sultan to the Grand National Assembly (GANT) in 1920. The 1921 Constitution granted legislative power to the GANT and executive power to an elected Executive Council.
The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) aimed to partition the Ottoman Empire, fueling Turkish nationalism and the revolution led by Atatürk and the GANT. The Armistice of Mudanya (1922) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) recognized modern Turkey’s borders, establishing a Turkish state for the first time.
First Republic: The creation of the Presidency, with Atatürk as the first President, marked a significant change. Key Kemalist principles included republicanism, nationalism, populism, secularism, reformism, and nationalization. Atatürk’s death in 1938 led to a radicalization of secularism.
İsmet İnönü succeeded Atatürk, keeping Turkey out of World War II. Post-war pressures led to democratization. The Democratic Party’s victory in the 1950 elections brought Celal Bayar to the Presidency. Economic challenges persisted.
Second Republic: The 1960 military coup established the National Security Council, with the military as guarantor of national principles. The 1961 Constitution introduced a bicameral legislature. The military gained prominence, and Turkey joined NATO in 1952. The period between 1961 and 1980 saw a mix of democratic institutions and military oversight.
Third Republic: The 1980 military coup led to the Third Republic, with its current constitution. Limited democratization occurred between 1982 and 1983. Turkey’s EU candidacy was accepted in 1999.
2. Key Actors: The Army and the Ruling Elite
The National Security Council (NSC) safeguards Kemalist ideals. Its composition reflects the military’s dominance. The military enjoys a strong social position, deeply rooted in Kemalist tradition.
Ethnic minorities, particularly the Kurds, face repression. The conflict with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) raises human rights concerns. The principle of secularism creates tension with religious-political movements.
Networks of interest exist between the military and the ruling elite. The military’s role in the national revolution and subsequent coups has shaped civil-military relations.
3. Origins of the Turkish System: Kemalism
The creation of a secular state was central to Kemalism. Nation-building focused on separating religion from the state, establishing cultural and educational standards, and professionalizing the civil service.
1. Legislative Reform: Islamic law (Sharia) was replaced in 1927.
2. Language Reform: The Arabic alphabet was replaced with a Latin-based script, and Turkish dialects were standardized.
3. Administrative Reform: Independent civil administration bodies were established.
Kemalism, whether an ideology or a set of practical solutions, has shaped modern Turkey.
4. Constitutional Bodies
The current Constitution is the 1982 Constitution of the Third Republic.
4.1. The Legislature: The Grand National Assembly (GANT) holds legislative power.
4.2. The Executive: Executive power is exercised by the President and the Council of Ministers.
4.3. The Judiciary: Judicial power is vested in independent courts.
4.4. The Constitutional Court: Established in 1961, the Court reviews laws and constitutional amendments.
5. Turkish Society and Political Parties: The Electoral System
Status and cultural dichotomy, inherited from the Ottoman period, continue to influence Turkish society. The 1983 Political Parties Act governs the formation and functioning of political parties.
Turkey’s political landscape is characterized by coalition governments and the military’s influence. Key societal fractures include religion/secularism, Turkish nationalism/regional identities, and rural/urban divides.
The 1983 General Election Law defines the electoral system. Corruption remains a concern, and the impact of unions is limited.
6. Present and Future: Turkey’s Challenges
Turkey’s regional location shapes its history and political system. Its foreign policy is complex, influenced by historical and geopolitical factors.
Relations with the United States, Greece, Cyprus, the Arab world, Central Asia, and Europe are key foreign policy concerns. Turkey’s EU membership aspirations require significant institutional and policy reforms.