The War of Independence and the Cortes of Cadiz: 1808-1814
The War of Independence and the Cortes of Cadiz: 1808-1814
Introduction
Charles III died in 1788 and was succeeded by his son, Charles IV, who was not trained for this role. At first, he kept two important ministers of his father, Floridablanca and Aranda, at his side, but both fell from grace because of the reactions that emerged after the outbreak of the bourgeois revolution in France.
Before the French Revolution (1789), Aranda maintained a neutral position to reduce costs, but he lost his post, and Godoy became the first secretary of state in 1792. Ever since, Spain entered the war.
Godoy was in favor of supporting Louis XVI against the French revolutionaries and decided to join forces with powers who fought against France, like Britain. The successes of France and mistrust towards England made Godoy change allies. The Peace of Basel (1795) was signed with France. Thus, Spain was subject to Napoleon. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1795) was signed, which agreed to cooperate with France against England. This caused great losses to the Spanish Armada.
The discrediting of Godoy forced him to relinquish power between 1798-1800. Upon his return, he signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso because Spain attacked Portugal (1801), an ally of England. The defeat of Trafalgar (1805) convinced Napoleon of the importance of blocking England, for which it was necessary to occupy Portugal and Spain. He managed to deceive the kings and Godoy and signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), in which Spain and Portugal were divided by France. In March 1808, Spain was invaded by French troops. Only then did Godoy realize Napoleon’s intentions of ending the Spanish monarchy.
This would be the prelude to the end of the reign of Charles IV, which resulted in the failure of enlightened absolutism.
Causes of the Crisis of Absolutism
- The war policy caused a rise in food prices and shortages in the royal treasury, leading to the first confiscation.
- The prestige of the crown and Godoy.
- Social unrest in all sectors of the population because of the economic situation.
Aranjuez and Bayonne
Following the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the French occupied Lisbon in 1807, and a powerful French army commanded by Murat appeared in Madrid in 1808. This alerted Godoy to Napoleon’s intentions: the liquidation of the Spanish monarchy. On March 17, in Aranjuez, the Royal Palace was assaulted. It was a plot prepared by the clique of the Prince of Asturias himself and highlighted the crisis of the Old Regime. Two days later, Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand.
Napoleon moved Charles, Maria Luisa, and Godoy to Bayonne on the one hand, and Ferdinand VII on the other. He forced Ferdinand VII to restore the crown to his father, Charles, and he bought it for a large amount of money and a palace for Godoy. This act is known as the “renunciation of Bayonne” and took place on May 6, 1808. Days later, Napoleon delivered the crown to his brother, Joseph.
The Onset of War
Napoleon realized that it was easy to manipulate the king and his son, but he felt that the revolution that had begun in Spain was a threat to his ambitions in Europe. He made the mistake of confusing the interests of the crown with the popular will.
On May 2nd, 1808, the people rose against the French troops, giving the signal for the long War of Independence, which would end the Napoleonic occupation, and the Bourbons would return to Spain. The uprising was suppressed by Murat, who ordered the execution of many prisoners.
The people held the power vacuum left by the institutions and authorities of the Old Regime. This put popular sovereignty into practice, and it was clear that the uprising against the French army would spread. Given the failure and discredit of the old institutions, government juntas were created in some cities of Spain, headed by figures from the leading social class. On June 6, the Junta of Seville declared war on Napoleon.
The French emperor was convinced that it would be a short-lived war, but the resistance of Zaragoza and Gerona and the defeat in Bailén disrupted his plans.
In September 1808, the Provincial Juntas were coordinated into a Central Junta, which took over national sovereignty. Some of its representatives were Jovellanos and Floridablanca. The Junta was responsible for conducting the war and the government until, in 1810, it transferred its powers to a regency.
Ideological Positions
- Francophiles. They accepted the resignations of Bayonne, some out of convenience or fear, others because they believed that with Napoleon it would be easier to carry out the necessary reforms for the nation.
- Patriots. They did not accept the resignations of Bayonne.
- Absolutists. Most continued to support Ferdinand VII.
- Liberals. They did not accept either Napoleon or the absolutist regime. They were supporters of freedom and felt a need for a constitution that recognized national sovereignty and the separation of powers.
- Jovellanistas. Supporters of moderate reforms to respect the traditions and the crown.
Military Development of the War
The War of Independence was a national war of liberation against the French occupation, but it was also a civil war, as a part of the Spanish population supported King Joseph.
There were two forms of struggle:
- The siege. Fighting took place house to house or in street barricades.
- The guerrilla. They acted freely where they could cause more harm to the enemy. Their advantage came from their knowledge of the terrain, mobility, and support of the population.
The war is divided into three phases:
- 1st phase (1808-1810): French troops began to enter the peninsula under General Junot, occupying almost the entire territory. However, the resistance of Zaragoza and Gerona and the defeat of Bailén meant that Andalusia was not occupied and that the court of Joseph I evacuated Madrid. Napoleon responded by coming in person in front of his Grand Army (200,000 men) and recovered almost all the territory.
- 2nd phase (1810-1812): The French army conquered almost the entire country, but the dispersal of its forces, the Anglo-Spanish troops fighting, and the continuous wear that Napoleon was subjected to by the guerrillas prevented them from controlling the territory and ending the war. The sieges made the French numerical superiority lose its advantage. The main ones were Zaragoza, Girona, and Cadiz. As for the English intervention, the naval battle of Trafalgar took place, which highlighted the naval superiority of Great Britain. In addition, Anglo-Spanish troops under the command of Wellington would eventually be imposed on the French after the victory of Waterloo.
- 3rd phase (1812-1814): Characterized by the development of the Russian campaign. This would change the situation in Spain, where Napoleon removed almost half of his workforce. Wellington, taking advantage of this situation, advanced from the Portuguese border, with major victories. The triumph in Vitoria and San Marcial (1813) in the north drove the French beyond the Pyrenees. The Treaty of Valençay ended the war, and Napoleon recognized Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.
Consequences of the War
In terms of human loss, it is estimated that there were around half a million dead. With regard to the economy, we can speak of a country destroyed: houses and infrastructure destroyed, fields without crops and slaughtered livestock, lack of markings, debris from the Treasury, theft, and destruction of much of the historical heritage.
From the political point of view, it led to the crisis of the Old Regime and the Spanish empire, encouraging the emancipation of the American colonies and, finally, the transition of Spain to a second-order power in the international arena. Although absolutism was restored with the return of Ferdinand VII, this system was already mortally wounded.