Thirty Years’ War, 1640 Crisis, and Westphalia Peace
The Thirty Years’ War and the Crisis of 1640
When Spain entered the war against the Protestants in support of Austria, days before Philip IV became king, the twelve-year truce between Holland and Spain ended. Neither was willing to renew it. The Spanish did not want to recognize the independence of the United Provinces, beginning a war that would last half a century. Shortly after, the Protestants were joined by England and Denmark. During the first years, the Habsburgs remained in control in Germany and the road between Spain and the Netherlands.
Between 1625 and 1626, Philip IV achieved a series of victories, but in 1626, the crown faced suspensions of payments due to a lack of silver. In 1628, the Dutch navy captured the Spanish fleet in Cuba. Philip IV ran out of funds, and the Netherlands used the money to attack Flanders. War broke out in 1629 in Mantua between France and Spain over the inheritance of the duchy. In 1631, peace was signed, and Spain withdrew. In 1632, Sweden joined the Protestants, occupying Bavaria, a very important Catholic state. Madrid and Vienna joined their military forces and defeated the Swedes at Nördlingen, but France entered the war in 1635. The Netherlands recaptured Breda in 1637, and the decisive naval defeat of the Dunes destroyed the Spanish navy.
The Crisis of 1640: Revolts in Catalonia and Portugal
In 1640, the monarchy faced bankruptcy with rebellions in Catalonia and Portugal. Discontent grew in all sectors of society, and the aristocracy chose to leave the court. The fighting was very serious in Catalonia, where the union of arms had been implemented in 1632. Following France’s entry into the war, the presence of Castilian troops increased tension, and riots erupted in 1640 between Gerona and the soldiers guarding the border. In December 1640, an uprising broke out in Portugal, which had for many years supported the Dutch invasion of its colonies and opposed the presence of Spaniards in their government.
The Fall of Olivares and the Defeat of the Habsburgs: The Peace of Westphalia
The defeats in Catalonia and Europe led Philip IV to order the court to abandon Olivares in 1643. This change did not alter the course of the war. In 1643, the defeat of Rocroi occurred, followed by rebellions in Naples and Sicily. In 1648, the warring countries agreed to peace, which crystallized with the Congress of the Peace of Westphalia. This consolidated the German religious map and recognized the achievements of some principalities against the Habsburgs. Philip IV recognized the independence of the United Provinces.
Peace of Westphalia
The Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on 15 May and 24 October 1648, respectively. The latter was signed in the Chamber of Peace of the City of Münster, in the historical region of Westphalia. These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War in Germany and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands. The treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III (Habsburg), the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and Sweden, the United Provinces, and their allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Peace of Westphalia led to the first modern diplomatic congress and initiated a new order in central Europe based on the concept of national sovereignty. Until 1806, regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ended the war between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall agreement.
Council of Trent
The Council of Trent was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church, which took place in three stages between 1545 and 1563. Convened to respond to the Protestant Reformation, it brought about a general reorientation of the Church and precisely defined its essential dogmas. The decrees of the Council, confirmed by Pope Pius IV on 26 January 1564, set the model of faith and practice of the Church until the mid-twentieth century.