Thomas Aquinas’ Philosophy: Influences and Medieval Context
Thomas Aquinas’ Philosophy: Key Influences and Medieval Context
The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas is mainly marked by the philosophy of Aristotle. His greatest influence was Aristotle, from whom he derived his theories of ontology, theology, anthropology, and ethics.
Aristotle’s Influence on Aquinas
- Ontology: Aquinas adopts Aristotle’s theory of motion, describing the passage from potency to act and differentiating the four types of movements: substantial, quantitative, qualitative, and local. He also incorporates the hylomorphic theory, which states that all matter is composed of a natural element (the physical element of all beings) and a form (the element that configures all beings).
- Theology: Aristotle influenced Aquinas in the conception of power and act and the fourfold theological theory of nature.
- Anthropology: Aquinas follows Aristotle’s anthropological conception, based on the duality between body and soul.
- Ethics: Aquinas aligns with Aristotle in stating that the ultimate end of man is happiness and that human nature is the foundation of moral law, meaning that natural laws are the basis for the moral laws that govern man.
Other Influential Philosophers
Aquinas was also influenced by post-Aristotelian medieval philosophers from Stoicism, Skepticism (Diogenes), and Neoplatonism (Plotinus).
- Augustine of Hippo: Aquinas adopts the Platonic principle of the immortality of the soul, taught by Augustine of Hippo, and the principle of participation. St. Augustine, known as the Christian translator of Plato, conveyed ideas that helped to reconcile faith and reason, clarifying that reason illuminates the contents of faith, and adding that their qualities coincide.
- Avicenna: Aquinas incorporates Avicenna’s distinction between essence and existence.
- Maimonides: Aquinas agrees with Maimonides that divine law and reason are distinct faculties.
- Bonaventure: Aquinas shares Bonaventure’s view that the purpose of man is the knowledge of God and his ideas on natural theology, which clarifies the role of faith.
Life and Times of Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas, “The Dumb Ox of Sicily,” was born in 1225 and died in 1274 in Fossanova (Lyon). He studied in Paris, Rome, and Naples, where he was a student of Albertus Magnus. His life was marked by a passion for philosophy and theology, which caused him family problems.
The Relationship Between Philosophy and Theology
During the time of Thomas Aquinas, and in the Middle Ages in general, the main issue was the relationship between philosophy and theology. Two positions emerged regarding faith and reason:
- Conciliatory: This was the majority view, which held that reason helps man achieve faith, faith guides and illuminates reason, and reason helps to clarify the contents of faith. This position was initially advocated by Augustine.
- Opposition: After the 13th century, some authors, like Anselm of Canterbury, emphasized the need to believe in order to understand, stating that without faith, there is no real knowledge. The Averroists, on the other hand, argued that reason is a faculty capable of understanding on its own.
The Problem of Universals
Another major problem at the time was that of universals: “Do universal ideas exist only in the mind that thinks them, or are they subsisting things in themselves?” In early Scholasticism, there were two main positions:
- Realists: They asserted that universals exist not only in the subject’s mind but also in reality.
- Nominalists: They argued that only individuals exist in reality, and there is nothing universal in them.
Historical Context
This wide range of proposals and theories took place in the historical context of the Middle Ages, characterized by feudalism, which resulted in a pyramidal social structure. The High Middle Ages saw the emergence of towns, centralized monarchies, and a theocentric Church. This period also witnessed the rise of Gothic architecture, which replaced the dark mysticism of Romanesque.