Thomas Aquinas: Scholasticism and Medieval Philosophy
Thomas Aquinas: Context
The Summa Contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas represent two responses to the need to systematize theological teaching and the synthesis between Christian faith and Aristotelian philosophy. These two Summas are part of the intellectual boom of universities in the 13th century, parallel to the urban, economic, and demographic growth that started at the beginning of the 11th century in the late Middle Ages.
Medieval Christian Philosophy
To understand a medieval author like Aquinas, knowing that there was a medieval Christian philosophy, we have to travel back in time, starting with the Patristic period of Saint Augustine. Patristics characterized the efforts of the 1st to the 10th centuries to develop a theory of the Christian church and defend it against paganism and Gnosticism. Following this, I will talk about philosophy and influential Christian thinkers in medieval philosophy, such as Boethius and Saint Augustine.
Saint Augustine: Major Themes
Saint Augustine’s major themes focused on the 1st Christian philosopher and a precursor of medieval philosophy. His thinking was guided by love and happiness, the search for science, and pure speculation. His record is his spirit fighting to get security in a world.
The Scholastic Period
The period that begins around the 9th century is known as Scholasticism. This century was marked by the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne’s mission was to defend the Holy Church, both externally and internally. The 9th century was an era of cultural regression and darkness, with little intellectual life.
The Late Middle Ages
The 11th century begins the late Middle Ages. The most significant novelty is the revival of urban life. The expansion of cities involved the development of craft production and trade. The urban development boom also led to architectural advancements. In the philosophical plane, the 11th century opens the way for greater confidence in reason and science. Dialectics is considered the discipline that best meets the demands of reason and recovers. The process brings to light the relationship between reason and faith. Two extra skills begin to be perceived as different fields of knowledge.
From the 12th century, Europe began to change politically, socially, economically, and culturally. The development of philosophy and science opens the way to autonomy versus theology. In this century, other areas of knowledge will also develop, such as nature.
The Church in Late Medieval Europe
Late medieval Europe was synonymous with Christianity. The Church presided over Europe, and Christian beliefs penetrated all areas of life. Those who disagreed were persecuted. This explains why Aquinas does not question God’s existence, faith, or the supremacy of divine law. For the 13th century, theocentric thought was obvious. Only secondary issues were discussed. However, social and economic transformations also affected the Church. The Franciscan and Dominican mendicant orders were founded, intended to reach new cities. The Dominican order, which Aquinas pursued, entered to preach Christianity and combat heresies and Muslim and Jewish teachings. This purpose explained above is that the command to take charge of the Summa Contra Gentiles was intended to equip preachers with rational arguments to fight against heretics and non-Christians.
The Rise of Universities
The economic and urban development boom also brought intellectual life. The diffusion of culture moved from monasteries to urban centers where cathedral or palatine schools were located, resulting in universities, institutions recognized by papal bull. The official language was Latin, allowing constant interaction between students and teachers. This regulation responds to theological teachings. The Summa is a manual of theology.
The Rediscovery of Aristotelian Philosophy
The second element to understand the work of synthesis that the two Summas represent was the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy in a Europe dominated by the Bible and Platonism.
The new knowledge generated a source of great convulsion. Aristotle denied creation and reduced immortality to the understanding agent, contrary to Christianity. Foremost, a question arises: Where is the truth? This background explains the controversial question that, after the introduction of the Summa Contra Gentiles, is the relationship between reason and faith. Albertus Magnus and Saint Bonaventure also faced this problem. Siger of Brabant proposed his double truth theory: one of faith and another of reason. Aquinas took his essential reference from Aristotle and criticized the double truth theory. For Aquinas, truth can only be one and is known through faith and reason, so it is necessary to delimit the fields and relations between these two modes of knowing. In the Summa Theologica, we find questions such as how divine and natural law relate.