Transformation of Europe: 15th to 18th Century
The Old Regime and its Transformation
The Old Regime began in the late 15th century and ended in the 18th. Both birth and death rates were high, resulting in minimal natural population growth. The primary economic activity was agriculture, using traditional methods and archaic tools. Consequently, productivity was low. Crafts were controlled by guilds, domestic trade was poor, and the discovery of the American territories favored the development of international trade. Society was characterized by a division of estates (privileged and unprivileged). Since the 17th century, there was an absolute monarchy.
Changes in the 18th Century
The 18th century saw changes that ultimately ended the Old Regime. The European economy experienced a phase of expansion, and economic activities underwent transformations:
- Agriculture remained the dominant activity. In some places, increased production led to a reduction in fallow land and the introduction of new techniques like crop rotation.
- Artisanal production remained dominated by unions but became less important.
- Internal trade was enhanced by improved communications.
- Foreign trade grew due to the development of sea transport.
Population and Society in the 18th Century
In the 18th century, the population increased considerably due to improvements in food, hygiene, and medicine. Society retained its organization in classes but experienced changes:
- Part of the nobility lost its political influence.
- The clergy was pressured by monarchs who imposed taxes, and intellectuals advocated for a more secular society.
- The bourgeoisie continued their upward mobility; the upper bourgeoisie became enriched, while the lower bourgeoisie was formed by officials. Artisans’ situations worsened, and most farmers remained poor.
The Failure of Monarchical Absolutism in the UK
In the UK, monarchical absolutism failed. A revolution and civil war broke out in 1642. A republic was established in England, and in 1660, Charles II restored the monarchy. In 1688, the second English revolution, known as the “Glorious Revolution,” erupted, concluding in 1689 with the Declaration of Rights.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that spread throughout Europe and America. The characteristics of the Renaissance were:
- Anthropocentrism
- Confidence in human reason
- Faith in progress, leading to optimism about the future
- The right to happiness in this world
- Nature was seen as the principle of good
Enlightenment Thought
Enlightenment thought criticized the foundations of the Old Regime and impacted the reforms undertaken in this century:
- The stratified, unequal society of the Old Regime should be changed to an egalitarian society.
- Enlightened proponents challenged absolute monarchy and defended a form of government that included citizen participation.
- Traditional religious beliefs were challenged, and the idea of a natural religion or deism gained traction.
- The economic system of the 17th century was challenged, and physiocracy was considered more suitable.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despotism involved absolute monarchs promoting reforms aimed at achieving the happiness of their subjects. Reforms were imposed in:
- Politics: The state was organized centrally, and laws were enacted for the whole kingdom.
- Society: Measures were taken in some countries, such as decreasing the privileges of the nobility.
- Economy: New crops were introduced, irrigation was expanded, etc.
- Academies were established, and religious tolerance was proclaimed.
International Relations in the 18th Century
International relations in the 18th century were characterized by a balance of power between European powers. The absence of a clearly dominant power led to a series of conflicts, including the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years’ War, which ended with the Peace of Paris.