Transformations in the Late 19th Century: Europe and Spain
The Second Half of the Nineteenth Century
During the second half of the nineteenth century, capitalism was consolidated in the more advanced countries, and states in the modern sense emerged, with a central government, unitary legislation, a common tax system, etc.
In social terms, the bourgeoisie and proletariat were very widespread, whose clashes were ongoing. In parallel, the old nobility continued to decline. Although the bourgeoisie and nobility continued fighting over power, the middle class became more conservative and, drawn by the social prestige of the nobles, established close ties with them. Thus, a new ruling class was formed that maintained ancient rituals and pomp while embracing their new values of money, competition, productivity, pragmatism, and so on.
The development of productive forces caused a major economic acceleration, the Second Industrial Revolution, which saw the emergence of new industries.
Meanwhile, the labor movement gained strength, and political and labor organizations inspired by socialism and anarchism were created in the last decades of the century.
Finally, in this period, free and compulsory primary education was extended, a phenomenon due to various reasons: the better preparation of individuals required by the capitalist production system, the need to unify the fundamental values of the new states (language, national culture, patriotic feeling, etc.), or the purpose of elevating public and secular education to rival that provided by the Catholic Church, which had hitherto prevailed.
Spain in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century
In Spain, disputes between conservatives and liberals were constant. In 1868, the Glorious Revolution occurred, which ended the Bourbon monarchy. It then implemented measures characteristic of a bourgeois revolution: universal suffrage, freedom of trade and commerce, freedom of the press, pulpit, worship, and association, separation of church and state, etc.
Military intervention in 1874 restored the throne to the Bourbons under the rule of Alfonso XII. This began the period of the Restoration, during which, although a parliamentary monarchy existed, election results were controlled by the government through a network of caciques.
Spanish population growth was remarkable during this era, but the population remained predominantly rural. The rail network and certain industries developed considerably. However, economic progress was inadequate relative to the population.
Socially, the bourgeoisie was not able to fully carry out the liberal revolution. The gentry eventually merged with the old aristocracy, becoming the ruling oligarchy of the Restoration. Meanwhile, the labor movement was organizing.
In culture, too, there was confrontation between conservatives and liberals. The champion of traditionalist ideas was the writer Menéndez Pelayo. Liberal thought was represented mainly by Krausism, an intellectual movement that advocated the reconciliation of reason and religion, tolerance, and in the educational field, non-authoritarian education, promotion of personal initiative, and so on.
The last decade of the nineteenth century was particularly contentious: there were strikes, peasant uprisings, and wars that led to the loss of the last Spanish colonies in 1898.