Transition from Middle Ages to Modern Era: A Historical Overview
End of the Middle Ages
Political Changes
- Decline of feudalism and rise of centralized monarchies
- Rise of communal republics in cities
- Emergence of national states: Spain, France, England
Economic Changes
- Shift in trade from rural to urban
- Increased monetary circulation and the rise of capitalism
Social Changes
- Emergence of a middle class and guilds
Cultural Changes
- Formation of national languages and universities
- Scholasticism as a method of study
- Rise of the Carolingian cultural movement
Major Literary Works
- Poem of the Cid: Castilian epic poem
- Decameron: Italian tales by Giovanni Boccaccio
- Divine Comedy: Italian religious epic poem by Dante Alighieri
National Languages
Latin influenced the development of national languages, leading to two main branches:
- Romance languages (derived from Latin): Castilian, French, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian
- Germanic languages: English, German, Dutch
Universities in the Middle Ages
Universities originated from cathedral schools and papal palaces. Key universities included Bologna and Paris. Their functions were to spread culture and foster nationalism.
Development of Capitalism
Trade and monetary circulation formed the basis of capitalism. Different types of capitalism emerged:
- Industrial capitalism: Manufacturing of products
- Financial capitalism: Bills of exchange, checks, bank loans
- Commercial capitalism: Trade and exhibitions of various products
Rebirth of Urban Life
The bourgeoisie emerged as a dominant social class.
- Urban life was revitalized by the Crusades, strengthening cities and boroughs.
- The bourgeoisie promoted trade and concentrated capitalist power.
- The bourgeoisie became guardians of culture.
The Modern Age
The Modern Age began with the fall of Constantinople and ended with the French Revolution, spanning from the 15th to the 18th centuries. It marked the culmination of the medieval spirit.
Characteristics of the Modern Age
Philosophical and Cultural
- The Renaissance
- Humanism
- Voyages of exploration
- Reformation of the Catholic Church
- The Encyclopedic movement
Political
- Absolutist monarchy of divine right
- Formation of empires (Netherlands, Portugal, Spain)
Economic
- Capitalism
- Mercantilism
- Physiocracy
- Economic liberalism
Social
- Rise of the bourgeoisie as the ruling class
Religious
- The Counter-Reformation and changes within the Catholic Church
The Renaissance
Originating in Florence, Italy, the Renaissance marked the transition from medieval to modern times. It was a movement of cultural, artistic, political, literary, and intellectual renewal, leading to new forms of human expression.
Crisis in the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church faced two main crises:
- Simony: The buying and selling of ecclesiastical offices
- Nepotism: The appointment of relatives to church positions
Main Features of the Renaissance
Spiritual
- Man became the center of the world.
- Emphasis on the individual “I” created a sense of freedom.
Philosophical
- Rise of humanism
- Emergence of a critical and analytical spirit
- Loss of faith in dogma
Artistic and Cultural
- Religious and civil art
- Realism in artistic works
- Imitation of Greek and Roman art
Political
- Rise of condottieri (leaders of mercenary armies)
Humanism
Humanism placed man and his intellectual reason at the center of all things. It contributed to human welfare through knowledge.
Key Humanist Figures
Precursors
- Dante Alighieri: Divine Comedy
- Francesco Petrarch: Africa
- Giovanni Boccaccio: Decameron
Main European Figures
- Erasmus of Rotterdam: The Praise of Folly
Italian
- Niccolò Machiavelli: The Prince
English
- Thomas More: Utopia
- William Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet (among other prominent plays)
- Christopher Marlowe: Playwright
Spanish
- Antonio de Nebrija: Latin dictionary and standardization of the Castilian language
- Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo
- Bartolomé de las Casas
Differences Between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age
| Middle Ages | Modern Age |
|---|---|
| God is the center of everything | Man is the center of everything |
| Dogmas are imposed | Critical and creative spirit prevails |
| Nature viewed as divine creation | Focus on study, research, and observation |
| Emphasis on memory | Importance given to reason |
| Concern for spiritual life | Concern for earthly life and individualism |
Reformist Movement of the Catholic Church
The Reformation
The Reformation was a religious revolution within the Catholic Church, primarily in 16th-century Spain. Its objective was to return to primitive Christianity, encourage Bible reading, and promote change.
The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)
The Counter-Reformation aimed to correct the Church’s failings and halt the Reformation. Its objectives were twofold: to address internal issues and to retain Catholic countries.
Background of the Reformist Movements
- Crisis of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages
- The Avignon Papacy
- The Great Schism
- Conciliarism in the 15th century
- Pre-reformist movements in the 14th century
Causes of Reform Movements in the Catholic Church
Religious
- Indiscipline of the high clergy
- Practice of simony and nepotism
Political
- Establishment of absolutism
- Rise of nationalism
- Temporal power of the popes
Economic
- Capitalist interests within the Church
Intellectual
- Rejection of medieval ideals
- Practice of self-examination