Understanding Cultural Anthropology: Societies, Identity, and Language
Contributions of Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropology studies the lifestyles of different human groups and their evolution. It examines institutions and interprets cultural expressions to understand their meaning, attempting to reproduce the cultural evolution experienced in their way of living and interacting with others.
The First Societies
- Egalitarian societies based on hunting and gathering.
- Leadership by experienced individuals.
Agricultural Societies
- New economic forms: accumulation and redistribution of controlled products.
- Shift to shared leadership and tribal chiefs.
The Nascent States
- Transition from primitive to state conditions.
- Centralization of power.
- Social stratification.
- Division of functions.
- Inequality in wealth distribution.
- Urban development.
- Cultural growth.
Different Cultural Skills
Ethnocentrism
Analyzes other cultures from one’s own perspective, using it as a measure to assess others. This attitude can lead to a lack of understanding and the insertion of a sense of cohesion within one’s own group. Ethnocentrism may manifest as xenophobia, racism, and even aporophobia.
Cultural Relativism
Proposes analyzing cultures from their own values, not from an alien culture, and recommends respecting cultural expressions. However, this attitude has limitations: it hinders dialogue between cultures and may lead to racism, cultural separation, romanticized views, or cultural paralysis.
The Intercultural Approach
Advocates for encounters between cultures on an equal footing. Objectives include:
- Recognizing the pluralistic nature of our society.
- Understanding the complexity of relationships between different cultures.
- Assisting in finding answers to global problems.
Dialogue Between Cultures
The dialogue between cultures is essential in our time. Universalism fosters a cultural attitude that enables real dialogue, avoiding the imposition of one culture on another. Universal values include:
- Respect for human rights.
- Appreciation of values such as freedom, equality, and solidarity.
- A disposition to dialogue, made possible by active tolerance.
Social Identity
We are born belonging to certain social groups and develop a social identity (enculturation). Both personal and social identities are acquired through a socialization process, adopting the values, customs, and traditions of our society. This process allows us to acquire our identity.
Socialization and its Forms
Socialization is the process by which an individual internalizes the culture of their society.
Primary Socialization
Aims to introduce the individual to society, carrying a significant emotional burden.
Secondary Socialization
New agents of socialization come into play. Individuals can choose the social sector they wish to engage with, internalizing its norms. It has less emotional charge.
Resocialization
Involves internalizing cultural content different from the society in which the subject was initially socialized. It requires dismantling the old view of reality and forming a new identity, usually occurring during deep crises.
The Tradition
Tradition is what we inherit, collect, and develop from those who preceded us. Traditions result from a historical process where generations transmit ways of giving meaning to things, as well as power and possibility.
We Are Culture
Subculture and Counterculture
Within each culture, there are subcultures, as people do not all live in the same way due to age, socioeconomic status, etc. Counterculture is a movement of rebellion against the hegemonic culture, presenting an alternative project for culture and society. Examples include subcultures, social attack groups, and alternative social groups.
Culture and Civilization
Over time, significant differences emerged within civilizations. Civilization is now regarded as the synthesis of more general traits shared by a set of related cultures.
Functions of Language
- Representative: Linguistic signs are symbols used to represent states of affairs.
- Expressive: Linguistic signs are symptoms that manifest states of affairs.
- Appellative: Language communities use signs to call upon others, expecting a certain reaction.
Dimensions of Language
- Syntactic: Refers to how signs relate to each other. Syntax rules dictate word order.
- Semantic: Refers to the relationship between signs and their meanings.
- Pragmatic: Refers to the relationship between signs and their users.