Understanding Democracy: From Ancient Greece to Modern Polyarchies
1. Democracy in Ancient Greece
Thucydides, writing during a time of conflict, highlighted the Athenian constitution as a unique model. Their government, called a democracy, differed from others by prioritizing civil rights for the majority, not just a select few. While public administration favored expertise, it was merit-based, not class-based. The term “democracy” literally translates to “rule of the demos,” referring to the neighborhoods of the Athenian polis. It represented the rule of the common people.
From ancient Athens to the present day, democratic governance is synonymous with freedom and self-rule, free from oppression. A political regime is considered democratic if:
- Power belongs to everyone.
- Power is limited by a constitution.
- Access to political power is through open and peaceful competition.
- Power is exercised temporarily, not perpetually.
- Citizens have rights, freedoms, and guarantees.
- Power reflects the will of the majority while respecting the rights of all.
- Laws arise from discussions between different political forces.
- The legitimacy of power and institutions stems from representing the governed’s will.
2. Republican and Liberal Traditions
Republican Tradition
The Roman Republic emerged from the abuses of monarchy, aiming for equal power distribution. Livy described it as the government of laws, where laws made by all prevent domination and protect freedom. Rome’s consulate, comprised of two annually elected consuls, and the patrician assembly, which decided major issues, exemplified this. Later, tribunes represented the people. This foundation led to principles underpinning modern constitutions:
- Government by laws ensures freedom.
- Power is divided, not concentrated.
- Citizen armies promote participation in public affairs.
Anglo-Saxon Liberal Tradition and the Rule of Law
Liberalism, founded on the principle of natural equality and rights, advocates for a spontaneous order arising from voluntary agreements. Justice, in the liberal view, means treating everyone equally and respecting their rights. Political power is legitimate only when protecting individual rights, leading to the concept of a minimal state with limited interference in individual decisions. A just state governs by equal laws, protecting rights under a constitution, also known as the rule of law, applicable to both monarchies and democracies.
Democratic Tradition
Addressing the issue of sovereignty, democratic government grants all citizens the right to rule. This raises the question of a people’s capacity for self-governance. The democratic tradition branches into two perspectives: ancient direct democracy and modern representative democracy.
Direct democracy, exemplified by Pericles’ Athens, involved citizens directly discussing common problems. However, majority rule could lead to minority oppression. Rousseau championed this model, arguing against delegating governing power.
Facing absolute monarchies, late 18th-century revolutionaries demanded self-governance and a return to democratic forms. Given the scale of modern states, James Madison proposed representation as a solution. This “great mechanical power of government” enabled the efficient concentration of political will for the public good, making democracy viable in the modern world.
3. Political Systems
A political system consists of the state, civil society, and political society. In democratic systems, these elements interact through dialogue. Totalitarian systems, however, see the state absorbing these elements, limiting participation.
4. Problems of Modern Democracy
Defining “the people” presents challenges. It can refer to a geographic location, all inhabitants, citizens with rights, the numerical majority, the poor, workers, etc. These varying definitions can lead to conflict and exclusion.
Who are the Demos of Democracy?
The demos are the citizens, ideally encompassing the widest possible range. However, broad citizenship is only one aspect of democracy. Participatory rights and equal participation in discussions are also crucial. Democratization involves both extending suffrage and broadening deliberation, pluralism, and political competition.
Is Government by the People a Tyranny of the Majority?
In a democracy, majorities and minorities are not fixed but fluid and shifting. Constitutional democracy, combining democratic rule with republican power separation and liberal rule of law, prevents majority tyranny by ensuring equal laws for all.
5. Polyarchy: Modern Democracy
Robert Dahl’s theory of polyarchy posits that modern Western democracies, while not true classical democracies, are the best adaptation of the democratic principle. Polyarchies represent the most democratic system achievable in modern conditions. This theory coincided with the “third wave” of democratization.
Waves of Democratization:
- First wave: 1828-1926
- First reverse wave: 1922-1942
- Second wave: 1943-1962
- Second reverse wave: 1958-1975
- Third wave: 1974-…
What are Polyarchies?
- A realistic form of democracy for our time.
- Representative democracy.
- A mixed regime.
- A form of political regime.
- A political democracy.