Understanding Deviance, Crime, and Social Change: A Sociological Perspective
Deviance and Crime
Definitions
Deviance
Deviance is a recognized violation of cultural norms; it’s straying from the accepted standards of a society.
Crime
Crime is a specific type of deviance that violates a society’s formally enacted criminal law, established by a local, state, or federal government.
Pluralistic Societies
Pluralistic societies are diverse communities where individuals hold a variety of beliefs and tolerate each other’s perspectives, even when they disagree.
Capital Offenses
Capital offenses are crimes considered so severe, such as murder or treason, that death may be deemed an appropriate punishment.
Theories of Deviance
Structural Strain
Structural strain suggests that societal values can create pressure and tension, leading to deviance.
Strain Theory
Strain theory proposes that deviance is more likely when there’s a gap between cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them.
Opportunity Theory
Opportunity theory suggests that individuals seek opportunities, whether legal or illegal, to attain their desired goals.
Control Theory
Control theory posits that strong bonds between individuals and society are necessary for adherence to social norms.
Social Bonds
Social bonds include attachment to family, commitment to social norms and institutions (like school and work), involvement in activities, and the belief in their importance.
Subcultural Theories
Subcultural theories propose that deviance arises from subcultures with alternative norms and values that differ from mainstream society.
Class-Dominated Theories
Class-dominated theories suggest that the dominant class’s interests dictate what is labeled as deviant or criminal.
Stigmatization
Stigmatization is the process of assigning a socially discrediting attribute, behavior, or reputation to an individual or group.
Labeling Theory
Labeling theory proposes that society creates deviance by identifying specific individuals as deviant.
Feminist Perspective on Deviance
The feminist perspective on deviance highlights how women’s treatment within the criminal justice system and crimes committed by men against women are often overlooked.
Primary Deviance
Primary deviance involves occasional norm violations that are not integral to a person’s lifestyle or self-concept.
Secondary Deviance
Secondary deviance occurs when an individual’s life and identity revolve around breaking societal norms.
Differential Association Theory
Differential association theory suggests that deviant and criminal behavior stems from associating with individuals who hold attitudes favorable to such behavior. The more interaction with deviant individuals, the higher the likelihood of adopting similar behavior.
Types of Crime
Violent Crimes
Violent crimes involve the use or threat of force against a victim. Examples include murder, assault, and rape.
Property Crimes
Property crimes involve threats to property without causing bodily harm.
Organized Crime
Organized crime involves structured groups engaged in providing illegal goods and services.
White-Collar Crime
White-collar crime refers to job-related crimes committed by individuals in high-status positions.
State Crimes
State crimes are crimes committed by the government or state authorities.
Social Control and Power
Social Control
Social control aims to bring individuals into conformity with dominant social expectations. This can occur through socialization or by dominant groups labeling individuals as deviant.
Social Power
Social power is the ability to exercise social control and influence others.
Informal Social Control
Informal social control involves unofficial methods of sanctioning deviance in everyday interactions.
Criminal Justice System
Mandatory Minimum Sentences
Mandatory minimum sentences, set by Congress, require automatic minimum prison terms for specific crimes.
“Three Strikes” Laws
“Three strikes” laws mandate life imprisonment for individuals convicted of three felonies.
“War on Drugs”
The “War on Drugs” has resulted in a significant portion of inmates incarcerated for drug-related offenses.
Family and Marriage
Family Structures
Family
A family is a group of individuals related by marriage, blood, or adoption who live together and share economic resources.
Marriage
Marriage is a set of norms defining how family structures should be organized.
Monogamy
Monogamy is the marriage between one man and one woman.
Polygamy
Polygamy is the marriage between more than two people.
Polygyny
Polygyny is the marriage between one man and multiple women.
Polyandry
Polyandry is the marriage between one woman and multiple men.
Serial Monogamy
Serial monogamy involves having multiple spouses throughout one’s lifetime, but only one at a time.
Endogamy
Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific ethnic, class, or social group.
Anti-Miscegenation Laws
Anti-miscegenation laws enforced racial segregation in marriage by criminalizing interracial relationships.
Extended Families
Extended families consist of three or more generations living together.
Nuclear Families
Nuclear families consist of one or both parents and their children.
Modern Family Dynamics
Sexual Division of Labor
The sexual division of labor refers to the allocation of different tasks between males and females in modern societies.
Cohabitation
Cohabitation involves unmarried couples living together in an emotional and/or sexually intimate relationship.
Common-Law Marriage
Common-law marriage recognizes couples as married based on cohabitation and presenting themselves as married, without a formal ceremony or license.
Civil Unions
Civil unions are legally recognized unions for same-sex couples, granting similar rights to marriage.
Domestic Partnerships
Domestic partnerships are interpersonal relationships between two individuals who live together and share a domestic life but are not married.
Domestic Violence
Domestic violence refers to violent or aggressive behavior within the home, often involving abuse of a spouse or partner.
Social Change and Movements
Theories of Social Change
Differentiation
Differentiation is the distinction made between social groups based on biological, physiological, and sociocultural factors, leading to assigned roles and status within society.
Rise and Fall Theories
Rise and fall theories of social change view societal change as cyclical patterns of growth and decline.
Collective Behavior
Collective Behavior
Collective behavior is voluntary, goal-oriented action in relatively unorganized situations where established social norms and values lose influence.
Crowds
Crowds are temporary gatherings of people in close proximity, sharing a common focus.
Emergent Norms
Emergent norms are situationally created norms that support collective action.
Riot
A riot is an illegal, prolonged outbreak of violence by a large group, targeting people or property.
Fads
Fads are temporary, widely imitated trends of mildly unconventional behavior.
Fashions
Fashions are styles of imitative behavior or appearance that last longer than fads.
Panic
Panic is a mass flight from a perceived threat.
Craze
A craze is an intense fascination with an object, person, or activity.
Rumors
Rumors are unverified pieces of information transmitted informally, often from unknown sources.
Social Movements
Social Movement
A social movement involves a large number of people engaged in a sustained, organized effort to bring about or resist social change.
Reformist Social Movements
Reformist social movements aim for change within the existing economic and political system (e.g., women’s suffrage).
Revolutionary Social Movements
Revolutionary social movements seek to fundamentally alter the existing economic, political, and social system, envisioning a new social order.
Rebellions
Rebellions aim to overthrow the existing system but lack a concrete plan for a new social order.
Reactionary Social Movements
Reactionary social movements seek to restore a previous social system and its accompanying traditional norms and values.
Utopian Social Movements
Utopian social movements strive to create an ideal society based on specific values and principles.
Free Rider Problem
The free rider problem occurs when individuals benefit from social movement successes without contributing to the effort.
Social Movement Organizations
Social movement organizations are groups formed to recruit members and coordinate participation in a social movement.
Resource Mobilization Theory
Resource mobilization theory suggests that even the most disadvantaged groups need resources to effect change.
Grassroots Organizing
Grassroots organizing relies on high levels of community-based participation to promote social change.
Conscience Constituents
Conscience constituents are individuals who contribute to a cause they believe in without receiving direct benefits.
Frame Alignment
Frame alignment refers to how activists promote a social movement’s message to potential members.
Gender and Inequality
Gender Roles and Identity
Gender Roles
Gender roles are societal norms dictating acceptable behaviors for individuals based on their perceived sex or sexuality.
Sex
Sex refers to an individual’s biological makeup, typically male or female.
Gender
Gender encompasses the personal traits and social positions associated with being female or male.
Transgender
Transgender individuals have a gender identity that doesn’t align with their assigned sex category.
Transsexual
Transsexual is often used interchangeably with transgender but typically refers to individuals who have undergone physical sex reassignment.
Sexuality
Sexuality refers to a person’s capacity for sexual feelings.
Sex Category
Sex category is a social assignment, while gender identification is private and can change.
Gender Inequality in the Workplace
Second Shift
The second shift describes the double burden working women face, performing both paid work and domestic responsibilities.
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat occurs when individuals risk confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.
Gender Wage Gap
The gender wage gap is the difference in earnings between women and men working full-time year-round.
Occupational Segregation by Gender
Occupational segregation by gender refers to the concentration of men and women in different occupations.
Labor Supply Factors
Labor supply factors explain why women or men might prefer specific occupations.
Labor Demand Factors
Labor demand factors reflect the needs and preferences of employers.
Human Capital
Human capital refers to skills valuable in a particular workplace.
Indirect Labor Costs
Indirect labor costs include expenses related to employee absences for family care, parental leave, tardiness, or training.
Glass Ceiling
The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier preventing women from reaching higher occupational levels.
Glass Escalator
The glass escalator describes the subtle advantage men experience in female-dominated occupations.
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment is a form of gender discrimination in the workplace.
Quid Pro Quo Sexual Harassment
Quid pro quo sexual harassment occurs when a supervisor uses their position to solicit sexual activity from a subordinate.
Hostile Environment Harassment
Hostile environment harassment creates a threatening or unsafe work environment due to persistent teasing or threats.
Feminism and Perspectives on Gender
Feminism
Feminism advocates for gender equality and challenges existing inequalities.
Sexism
Sexism is discrimination based on gender, encompassing attitudes, stereotypes, and cultural elements that perpetuate it.
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism believes that women’s inequality stems from imperfect institutions that can be reformed without fundamentally altering society.
Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminism argues that women’s inequality results from the combined effects of capitalism and male domination, requiring transformation of both for equality.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminism contends that women are directly oppressed and subordinated by men, primarily through sexual relations.
Patriarchy
Patriarchy refers to any social system where men hold dominance over women.
Multicultural Feminism
Multicultural feminism emphasizes the intersectionality of race, class, and gender in women’s experiences, particularly for women of color.
Standpoint Theory
Standpoint theory advocates for centering scholarly inquiry on the experiences of marginalized groups, including women.
Standpoint Epistemology
Standpoint epistemology is a philosophical perspective recognizing that knowledge is influenced by an individual’s social position.
Matrix of Domination
The matrix of domination describes a system of social positions where individuals can simultaneously belong to both dominated and dominating groups.