Understanding Early 20th Century Europe: War, Politics, and Culture
The Path to War
The Meaning of Peace: An arms race between major European powers and the formation of rival military alliances.
Rivalries and Alliances
France vs. Germany: Kaiser Wilhelm II’s aggressive foreign policy threatened French and British colonial positions.
The Balkans’ Problems: Christian peoples in the Balkans sought independence from the Ottoman Empire, while Russia and Austria-Hungary competed for influence.
Military Alliances:
- Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
World War I
Main Causes: Germany’s attempt to alter the European balance of power and ongoing conflicts in the Balkans.
Eastern vs. Western Front: The Eastern Front was more extensive.
War’s End: The U.S. entry and a popular revolution in Germany due to war fatigue led to Germany’s surrender.
Russia: Revolution and Change
Russia’s Backwardness
Russia lagged in social structure and foreign policy compared to other European powers.
The Tsar’s Fall
Tsar Nicholas II’s decision to enter WWI, despite lack of preparation and popular opposition, led to his downfall in 1917.
Post-Revolution Power
Power was divided between a bourgeois provisional government and the people’s soviets.
The Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks, led by revolutionary figures, organized anti-government uprisings with clear slogans aligned with the majority’s desires.
Spain: Political Turmoil and Culture
Political Instability
Failed Restoration: Vote rigging and intense political infighting hindered reforms after the 1898 disaster.
The Tragic Week: Unpopular war and conscription led to serious incidents.
Social Classes After 1917: Tensions between upper and lower classes resulted in repression, military decline, and protests.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
Causes of the Coup: Political decomposition, government crisis, the Moroccan War disaster, attacks, and strikes.
Positive Aspects: Public order restoration, resolution of the Moroccan War, public works construction.
Negative Aspects: Dictatorial power, suspension of the 1976 Constitution, restricted freedoms.
The King’s Fall: The dictatorship and constitution suspension eroded public and political party trust.
Spanish Literature and Modernism
Modernist Author
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer was admired by modernists.
Modernism vs. Generation of ’98
Modernism: A rupture-focused artistic movement against the era’s aesthetic and utilitarian spirit.
Generation of ’98: Simpler expression and greater intimacy.
Federico García Lorca’s Works
Prose: Impressions and Landscapes (1918)
Poetry: Book of Poems (1921), Songs, Gypsy Ballads (1928), Poem of the Deep Song (1931), Poet in New York (1940)
Theater: Yerma (1934), The House of Bernarda Alba (1936)
Antonio Machado’s Works
Poems: Solitudes, Galleries, and Other Poems (1907), Proverbs and Songs (1907-1917), Fields of Castile (1912-1917)
Prose: Juan de Mairena (1936)
Machado’s Symbols: Afternoon, water, gardens, and road.
Administrative Terms
Application/Petition: A written request addressed to a senior person, organization, or government agency.
Curriculum Vitae (CV): A personal document including the applicant’s data, studies, knowledge, and experience for job consideration.
Grammar: Subordinate Adjective Clauses
Subordinate Adjective Clauses: Sentences with a dependent relative pronoun (e.g., which, who, that) that modify a noun (antecedent) like an adjective. Example: The girl who is a journalist…