Understanding English Grammar: Key Concepts
The Verb “Walk”: A Full Verb Classification
The verb “walk” is classified as a full verb because it can take all the inflections applicable to verbs. Some examples include the bound inflectional morpheme ‘-s’ (used for third-person singular subjects), and the morpheme ‘-ed’ (indicating past tense in regular verbs). Functionally, a full verb can be the head of a Verb Phrase (VP), unlike modal verbs, which always function as pre-modifiers. In terms of meaning, “walk” refers to an action, one of the three primary ways a full verb can be presented (actions, processes, and states).
Gradable Adjectives: Definition and Characteristics
Gradable adjectives can express different intensities or “graduations.” Formally, they generally take the ‘-er’ morpheme to compare one entity with another (with exceptions like “good” and “bad”). They can be the head of an Adjective Phrase. Semantically, they provide varying intensities of a characteristic of an entity.
“House” vs. “The White House”: Common and Proper Nouns
The main difference between “house” and “The White House” lies in their noun type. “House” is a common noun, while “The White House” is a proper noun. Formally, common nouns can take inflections (e.g., the plural ‘-s’), while proper nouns typically do not. Functionally, both can be the head of a Noun Phrase. Semantically, common nouns refer to a category of entities, while proper nouns name a specific entity.
Common Ground Between Syntax and Morphology
Both syntax and morphology study the specific order of elements that compose language. Morphology examines how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes, while syntax analyzes sentences and the order of their parts.
The Adjective “Good”: An Irregularity
The adjectives “good” and “bad” are grammatically unique. Although they are gradable adjectives, they are irregular. They do not take the inflection ‘-er’ to change their intensity. Instead, they change their form completely: “good” becomes “better” for comparison, and “bad” becomes “worse.”
Key Grammatical Features of Verbs
Verbs are not just actions; they can also represent processes and states. While often categorized as “open class words” (along with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs), a deeper analysis reveals differences between full verbs and modal verbs. Formally, full verbs can take all verb inflections, while modal verbs are limited (e.g., only ‘-ed’, and even “must” lacks this). Functionally, full verbs can head a VP, while modal verbs are pre-modifiers (always the first) within a VP. Semantically, full verbs denote processes, actions, and states, whereas modal verbs express perspectives like formality, permission, attitude, etc.
Grammar’s Role in the Language System
Grammar is the central component of language, connecting semantics and phonology. It focuses on the structure of language, from morphemes and word structure to words and sentence structure. Leech describes grammar as the mechanism by which language operates in communication, represented abstractly in the human mind. Grammar can be analyzed through descriptive or prescriptive rules. Descriptive grammar reflects the actual language use by native speakers, including variations and linguistic rules. Prescriptive grammar adheres to the idea of “proper” language use in writing and speaking, often associated with “good” and “bad” grammar. Prescriptive grammar resists changes and variations (geographical, social, age, gender), while descriptive grammar analyzes and explains these differences.
The Subject in a Sentence: Definition
A subject is the entity that performs an action upon another designated object within a sentence. It differs from the predicate, which contains the action performed by the subject. A direct object is the direct receiver of the action. Therefore, the subject acts upon an explicit or implicit object.
Regular vs. Irregular Verbs: Technical Differences
Most English verbs are regular (around 200 irregular forms exist). Regular verbs maintain their stem across inflections (e.g., “walk” becomes “walked”). Their inflections are predictable. Irregular verbs, however, have unpredictable inflections (e.g., “give” becomes “gave”).
Open and Closed Classes: Features and Overlaps
Open class words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) accept new members. These lexical categories carry meaning and relate to the ever-changing real world (e.g., “chatting,” “twitter,” “to google”). Closed class words (prepositions, determiners, conjunctions, enumerators) do not admit new members; they are functional and predetermined. Modal verbs present an overlap: they are closed (describing speaker attitude – obligation, permission, possibility), yet belong to the open class of verbs.
Defining the Concept of “Word”
A word is the smallest unit of syntax and the largest unit of morphology. It is a combination of morphemes, either plain (one morpheme, e.g., “horse”) or complex (multiple morphemes, e.g., “unicorns”). A word conveys a composed message in communication.
Noun Phrases: Structure and Modifiers
A noun phrase (NP) is constituted by a word and/or phrase. It has a mandatory Head, which is always a noun. This head can be modified by words or phrases placed before (pre-modifiers) or after (post-modifiers) the noun. Many adverbial phrases (AdvP) can pre-modify a noun. Besides “the,” other determiners like “a” exist. A noun phrase can be a single word or a phrase with a subordinate phrase.
Limitations of Concrete and Abstract Nouns
Concrete nouns, the most typical noun class, refer to objects, people, places, or things. Abstract nouns denote concepts, ideas, and intangible objects. The classification’s limitations stem from the intuitive criteria required, relying on real-world perceptions. For instance, “faerie” combines concrete and abstract characteristics.
Lexical Categories: Definition
A lexical category is a group of elements that share common characteristics.
Morphemes: The Smallest Grammatical Unit
A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit. Morphology studies the structure of words, which can be composed of one or more morphemes (plain or complex). Morphemes are the smallest units in grammatical structure, progressing from morphemes to words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.