Understanding Ethics and Morality: Concepts and Theories
Ethics and Morality: Defining the Concepts
Ethics (from the Greek *ethos*, meaning habit or custom) and morals (from the Latin *mores*, also meaning custom or manners) share a similar etymological meaning. While the distinction is often considered artificial, it’s helpful to understand their nuances. Morals refer to the set of behaviors and values that govern a society at a particular time. These standards can be subjective (originating from an individual) or strict (imposed by society). The object of morality is a set of rules, values, and beliefs that guide our behavior towards what is considered good.
Ethics, on the other hand, is the theoretical reflection on those behaviors and norms that constitute moral values. It’s a philosophical examination of morality.
Moral Acts and Judgments
Moral acts are actions that are likely to be approved or rejected by society. These acts can be performed consciously or unconsciously, intentionally or unintentionally. However, to judge an act morally, it needs to be performed consciously and voluntarily. Freedom is essential for an act to be considered truly human. These acts have social consequences, which can be positive or negative. Morality evaluates these acts based on conscious intent, voluntariness, and their direct or indirect social consequences.
Types of Judgments
A judgment is a statement that affirms or denies something about a subject. There are several types:
- Factual Judgments: Describe a fact or state without personal opinion.
- Value Judgments: Affirm or deny the value of something.
- Moral Judgments: Evaluate actions based on moral values and rules.
Elements of Moral Circumstances
Understanding the circumstances surrounding a moral act is crucial. Key elements include:
- Reason: The cause or motivation behind the action.
- End: The intended outcome or goal.
- Means: The strategies or methods used to achieve the end.
Moral Value and Ethical Theories
Moral value is the quality of human actions, indicating whether they contribute to human progress or not. Values can be positive or negative. National ethics often reflects on these issues. Two major ethical theories are:
- Ethics of Purpose (Teleological Ethics): These theories claim that humans have a specific purpose in life and identify the means to achieve it.
- Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics): These theories seek to establish universal standards of conduct for everyone.
Aristotle’s Finalist Ethics
Aristotle’s ethics is finalist, aiming to achieve specific goals in pursuit of happiness. Goods are the ends for which human beings strive. Aristotle believed there was a proper good for each activity.
Happiness and Virtue
For Aristotle, human happiness consists in the exercise of reason, which he called intellectual virtue. Moral virtue is the force that leads individuals to act in ways that achieve the proposed good. Aristotle defined moral virtue as the *mean* between two extremes, avoiding excess and deficiency. He believed that this “happy medium” is achieved through reason and prudence.
Epicureanism
Epicurus and the Epicureans sought pleasure through reason and prudence. They addressed three great fears:
- The fear of the gods.
- The fear of death.
- The fear of the afterlife.
Pleasure and Virtue
For Epicureans, happiness is the absence of concerns and pain. They believed that the soul should be at peace. They advised avoiding pleasures that could lead to pain or illness, as true pleasure resides in a tranquil soul and a body free from pain. Virtue is the means to achieve this state of pleasure and peace of mind. The virtuous person possesses the skill to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Christianity
Christianity emerged from the life and teachings of Jesus, a man of the people who shared his message through parables and miracles. He spoke with authority, claiming his message was revealed by God.