Understanding Ethics: Key Theories and Modern Challenges
What is Ethics?
Ethics is a branch of philosophy reflecting on what is considered morally good and trying to develop a rationally universal morality valid for all cultures.
Major Ethical Theories
Ethical theories represent different ways of thinking about the best way to live and behave. They are often grouped into categories:
Material Ethics Explained
Material ethics affirm a supreme good or ultimate goal that guides our moral behavior and establishes a set of rules or moral standards to achieve it.
Formal Ethics (Ethics of Duty)
Formal ethics, also called ethics of duty, assert that the only reason that should guide moral behavior is adherence to duty.
Key Ethical Philosophies
Hedonism and Epicureanism
Hedonism is the philosophical doctrine based on the pursuit of pleasure and the suppression of pain as the purpose or raison d’être of life. It is also called Epicureanism after its founder, Epicurus.
Utilitarianism Principles
Utilitarianism argues that what is good lies in “achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people” and maximizing “pleasure and no pain.” Key proponents include Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
Aristotle’s View on Happiness
Aristotle finds happiness (eudaimonia) within his teleological (purpose-driven) conception of nature, emphasizing virtue and rational activity.
Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law
Thomas Aquinas argues that good lies in following natural law, which he viewed as the rational order imposed by God.
Cynicism: Living Naturally
Cynicism advocates that the best way to live is in harmony with nature, rejecting superfluous needs and societal conventions.
Stoicism: Accordance with Nature
Stoicism posits that living well means living in accordance with nature and reason. Its defenders included Zeno of Citium, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius.
Kantian Ethics and Duty
Immanuel Kant’s ethics are based on practical reason – the use of reason to determine what is right and good. Practical reason must strive for a universal moral law. Kant formulated his categorical imperative: “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
Existentialist Ethics: Authenticity
Existentialism, a philosophy prominent in the 20th century, is based on individualism and the perceived loss of grand ideals. It views the human being as alone, abandoned to the inescapable necessity of creating meaning and making choices. Being authentic involves accepting this hard truth without hiding behind excuses.
Discourse Ethics: Dialogue for Good
Discourse ethics proposes that what is considered good should be determined through rational dialogue involving all affected parties. Key proponents include Jürgen Habermas, Karl-Otto Apel, and Adela Cortina.
Modern Ethical Challenges
Sources of Ethical Questions
Ethical problems often arise from:
- Contact and coexistence between different cultures and their moral systems (e.g., Christian morality alongside Muslim morality).
- New societal problems or claims that require new ethical reflection and solutions.
Evolving Ethical Claims
Society faces new ethical debates stemming from various claims:
- Claims for equality after centuries where slavery or social inequality were accepted as “natural”.
- Ethical thinkers challenging traditional views that unfairly denigrated children born outside of marriage.
- Demands by homosexuals, previously often treated pathologically, to recognize their rights, planting a new ethical debate.
- Reflections on private property. While historically defended by most cultures, ideologies like Communism attempted its abolition, requiring new definitions and justifications.
Universal Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights represents a significant attempt to outline universal ethical principles applicable to all human beings.
Foundational Ethical Ideas
Many ethical systems seek to balance the individual pursuit of happiness with a happiness that is compliant and cooperative with the happiness of others. They often promote values like freedom, sociability, and meeting human expectations and needs.
Religion, State, and Ethics
Religions have historically been major sources for answering ethical questions. Although diverse, different religions often attest to shared fundamental human concerns about morality, purpose, and the good life.
State Approaches to Religion
The relationship between the state and religion impacts public ethics:
State Religion: This refers to a state that officially endorses or establishes a specific religion.
Secular State (Laïcité): This describes a state that maintains neutrality in matters of religion, having no official religion and often separating religious institutions from state functions.