Understanding Fascism: Historical Context and Key Features

Posted on Nov 21, 2024 in History

Item – 10

1. Fascism and the Rightist Authoritarian Context

1.1 European society underwent a series of events that saw an authentic disaster: a long and bitter war, the collapse of traditional European empires, a social revolution (in Russia) that seemed to threaten new European political regimes, and economic depression. Many people, fearful of the changes, accused the liberal system of the 19th century of causing such catastrophes. The values of reason, progress, education, and science had not prevented the war. Institutions like parliaments, representative governments, and constitutions guaranteed rights and fundamental freedoms, encouraging the masses to demand more rights and increasingly more democracy. The Liberals lost economic measures to survive the crisis of ’29. During the twenties and thirties, political and social movements were authoritarian and required the disappearance of the liberal regime. On this last point, they coincided with leftist movements. However, the right did not claim workers’ participation in politics but rather the imposition of the state over the masses. Sometimes the authoritarian right organized a true mass movement in line with modern political parties and unions, supported by all social classes and political propaganda. These mass movements constituted, strictly speaking, fascism, with its most representative examples being Mussolini’s Italy (1922-1945) and Nazi Germany (1933-1945).

1.2 Characteristics of Fascist Movements

Fascist movements had characteristics that set them apart from other authoritarian regimes: they were modern and identified as revolutionary. They aimed to attract the masses to build a new society that would overcome capitalism and communism. The distinguished traits were:

• Mobilizing the masses. They easily adapted to a democratic society to attract crowds and organize them into modern political parties.
• Using propaganda and demagoguery to attract the masses. They participated in elections, outlined their programs, and provided speeches to each person who wanted to listen. They also used symbols, such as swastikas.
• Being led by a charismatic figure, often alien to conservative social groups. The fascists typically allied with aristocracy, capitalists, clerics, monarchs, and military leaders to seize power, but they used them to achieve their own ends.
• Indifference in matters of religion and political systems. They leaned on the military, but their leaders were civilians. They opposed free-market capitalism, yet exploited it to steer the economy. Fascism, as an ideological system, combined irrational ideas, myths, and beliefs in which they deposited almost blind faith and religious fervor.

1.3 Authoritarian Regimes and Fascist Regimes

Between the wars, Europe experienced an undemocratic fever. Few countries maintained constitutions allowing elections, independent political parties, and democratic governance. By 1939, only France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Nordic countries retained their old liberal institutions. Excluding the USSR, radical forces seized power through force, imposing dictatorships or authoritarian regimes in two successive waves:

• First Wave: The first wave of dictatorships occurred in the twenties, after the First World War, particularly affecting Eastern and Southern Europe. Notable regimes included António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal (1926-1974), Miguel Primo de Rivera in Spain (1923-1930), and Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime in Italy. The success of Mussolini’s regime became the model for later fascist movements in Europe.
• Second Wave: The second wave of dictatorships occurred in the thirties. After the 1929 crisis, rising unemployment caused general fear and social support for repressive measures. In Germany, Adolf Hitler’s regime (1933-1945) facilitated the spread of fascism worldwide. Most of these dictatorships triumphed with relative ease and little opposition. The only exception was Spain, where the Second Republic (1936) withstood an attempted coup, leading to a civil war (1936-1939) and the establishment of Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975).

2. Mussolini’s Italy

2.1 The Rise of Fascism (1919-1922)

In Italy, the collapse of liberal institutions came in 1992. Factors contributing to the rise of fascism included a desire to revise peace accords, an economic crisis, parliamentary fragmentation, and fear of social revolution. The desire to revise the peace accords: Despite being one of the victorious powers, Italy received little compensation. Italian public opinion viewed the peace of Paris as humiliating, and the country felt unrewarded for its efforts. Italy’s aspiration to occupy the opposite shore of the Adriatic was frustrated by the creation of Yugoslavia and Albania. Ultimately, Italians claimed Fiume, an integrated territory that had not been invaded by an army of Italian volunteers in 1919. BENITO MUSSOLINI, a former socialist, abandoned the labor movement due to its lack of support for Italy’s involvement in the First World War. In March, he founded the Fasci di Combattimento (combat units), combining rabid nationalism with revolutionary syndicalism and anticlericalism. The results were dismal in elections, but he attracted the attention of many veterans of the First World War.

– The Crisis and Economic Fear of Social Revolution: The Italian economy was damaged after the war. Loss of life was compounded by inflation, debt from raised loans, a fall in agricultural production, and the conversion of war industries. Capitalists wanted to preserve gains achieved during the conflict, while the middle class lost savings and purchasing power. Between 1919 and 1920, peasants occupied farms, factories, and unions. However, the Italian labor movement was not strong enough to trigger a revolution and was divided: since 1921, the Communist Party attracted some disenchanted workers from socialism. The rise of fascism began, and their armies violently attacked unions and workers, especially in rural areas. This raised support from landowners and capitalists who viewed the fascists as protectors. On the other hand, Mussolini’s movement soon removed the revolutionary aspects of its program and began to gain deputies in elections, albeit as a minority.

Fragmentation of Parliamentary Power: The Italian electoral system favored the division of parliament among many political parties, necessitating governing coalitions. King Victor Emmanuel III intervened to entrust the government to various political leaders. These governments were unstable and had little room for maneuver, which impressed the fascists. Many politicians preferred to govern with the fascists. Mussolini organized the so-called March on Rome (October 1922), a fascist march that occupied the main public buildings in the capital and demanded all power. The king refused to grant full powers to the government to suppress this motion and ordered Mussolini to form a government. This symbolizes the unwillingness of Italian resistance against the rise of fascism.

2.2 The Consolidation of the Fascist Regime (1922-1929)

The first government of Mussolini consisted of fascist ministers. The parliament granted all fascist militias powers and imposed their laws on the streets. In 1924, the fascists won a large majority in the chambers, and those in power suppressed political and social opposition. In 1924, Socialist deputy Matteotti, who had denounced Mussolini before parliament, was kidnapped and murdered. This major scandal was exploited to end the opposition: in 1925, Mussolini dissolved the legislative chambers and began a personal dictatorship (until 1945). Mussolini adopted the title of leader. Political parties and trade unions were dissolved, the free press was suppressed, and communists were jailed. A fascist totalitarian state was born: in 1929, a single list of candidates formed a parliament without substance. The Italian state reconciled with the Holy See (Lateran Pacts), ensuring Catholicism as the official state religion and making religious education compulsory.

2.3 The Corporate State-Totalitarian (1929-1940)

Employers and workers were compulsorily grouped into corporations. The class struggle was abolished, and all groups of society were embraced in their activities. Corporations of artists, white-collar workers, insurance, transport, and others were formed. In economics, fascism began implementing a strict policy of liberalism and deflation, then promoting protectionism and large business concentrations. Fascism won support from industrialists and agricultural producers. In the 30s, the regime became more autocratic and interventionist, increasing its social presence with three objectives: 1. Protect Italy from the effects of the Great Depression. 2. Imitate Nazi Germany. 3. Militarize the country to intervene in successive wars.

3. Germany

3.1 Nazism in the Weimar Republic and the Rise of Nazism (1918-1933)

Germany was defeated in World War I. The regime that emerged after the defeat was democratic and known as the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Republic faced many problems that allowed the development of Nazism. Among these problems:

• Defeat in the Great War: The new German state signed the Treaty of Versailles with the victors. The army and conservatives accused the regime of betraying the soldiers at the front and blamed it for the defeat, believing that revolutionary politicians had caused the loss.
• Postwar Economic Chaos: The most affected were savers, pensioners, war widows, servants, and employees. Some groups were often accused of conspiring to enrich themselves at the expense of good Germans, with attacks often personified in the Jews, leading to strong anti-Semitism in Central Europe.
• Weakness of the Regime: The Weimar Republic faced attempts to address the revolutionary communist party, promoted by attempts at separation from several states and coups from the extreme right. The Weimar Republic became stricter and more harshly repressed the labor movement to counter conspiracy. It consented to street violence from Nazi Party paramilitary militias.
• Parliamentary Division: The German electoral system prevented parties from obtaining a sufficient majority to govern alone. This forced governments to form unstable coalitions: the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Zentrum (Catholic Center Party). The Nazi Party initially participated in right-wing party agreements and coalitions, being rejected by radicals but later becoming useful due to its anti-Marxism, intimidating communists and trade unionists.

Crisis of 1929: Germany was one of the countries most affected by the Great Depression, which increased social unrest and unemployment, threatening to ruin the German middle class. The situation benefited the Communists and the Nazis, while the SPD and the Zentrum stagnated. In the elections of 1932, the Nazi Party emerged as the top party. Hindenburg invited Hitler to lead a right-wing coalition government on January 30, 1933.

3.2 The Nazis in Power (1933-1945)

To suppress democracy, Hitler dissolved the Reichstag and called elections. In February 1933, a state of emergency decree suppressed all democratic rights. In the March 1933 elections, the Nazis succeeded in obtaining 44% of the vote. Hitler banned all political parties except Nazi associations. The Reichstag voted for the emergency law. In November 1933, Hitler called elections with a single Nazi list, which received over 90% of the vote. Germany became a one-party state. After Hindenburg’s death in 1934, no new president was elected; instead, Hitler called himself Führer (leader). To eliminate all opposition, Hitler got rid of the most radical wing of his party. In 1934, during the so-called Night of the Long Knives, all leaders of the SA were killed. Many conservatives who opposed the Nazi regime were also disposed of. The SS and the Gestapo enforced repression. Hitler managed to consolidate all powers with the help of his closest aides.

4. The Democratic Alternatives to Authoritarianism

Despite the surge of authoritarianism during the interwar period, some democracies (Britain, France, and the USA) were maintained. In the thirties, the regimes of these countries were considered weak and decadent, and the 1929 crisis forced them to make major changes to adapt to new times.

4.1 Britain

Britain suffered problems after the Great War, such as high unemployment rates and a sharp drop in exports. The British system survived, with the following advantages:

• A long tradition of parliamentary procedure.
• An electoral system that favored parties obtaining more votes in each district, allowing absolute majorities in the chambers and strong governments.
• Political parties (both left and right) accepted the system.
• A mature and experienced labor movement that demanded concrete action through well-organized strikes, preferring negotiation over revolution.
• A vast empire that allowed them to maintain economic liberalism longer than most European countries.

4.2 France

The French Republic also suffered the impact of the Great War. The influence of the Russian Revolution on French workers was remarkable. France underwent dramatic moments until 1924, and after the crisis of ’29, it suffered a severe economic and social depression. The authorities in France prevented the establishment of fascism thanks to the following factors:

• A mixed electoral system that facilitated the formation of coalitions before elections.
• The union of the left, which united socialists, communists, and the bourgeois left to avoid a fascist dictatorship.
• Attempts to boost purchasing power, including reducing the workweek and instituting collective agreements and vacation pay.

4.3 United States

Unlike British and French democracies, the U.S. emerged stronger after the First World War, acquiring international political leadership and becoming the largest industrial power at the time. The U.S. stability was made possible by the following factors:

• Relative isolation from European problems.
• The political dominance of the Republican Party, representing industrialists, financiers, and traders.
• The development of a consumer society that supported a stable political system.

In the 1930s, the Great Depression changed this panorama. The ineffective Republican response to the crisis led to the presidency of Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who implemented effective measures to address the crisis and avert any possibility of revolution or authoritarian solutions. The set of economic and social policies adopted by Roosevelt is known as the New Deal, which committed the government to intervene in the economy, particularly to strengthen demand as an engine of growth and fight unemployment.

5. Future Contestants

1.1 The future opponents to lasting peace were imperative for the League of Nations to resolve disputes and enforce postwar agreements, showing stronger than the revisionist ambitions of the defeated powers or unsatisfied. Among these powers were Germany, Italy, and Japan:

• Germany aspired to regain its economic and military strength, seeking to rid itself of the humiliating clauses of the Versailles Treaty.
• Italy wanted to acquire territory in Africa and the Balkans.
• Japan aimed for territorial expansion in China and the Pacific.

The 1929 economic crisis increased the internal problems of Japan, Italy, and Germany, contributing to the strengthening of expansionist policies. The respective regimes became more militarized, and Germany’s oppressive parliamentary democracy disappeared by 1933. Hitler’s Germany played a crucial role in triggering the conflict, as its demographic, economic, and military potential was much higher than that of Japan and Italy. German rearmament and initiatives for territorial expansion led to the war in 1939. Italy joined the war a year later, and Japan did so in 1941.

1.2 The Steps to War

The path to war was reflected in a series of events in Germany, Italy, and Japan that showed their rejection of the Paris peace and challenged the League of Nations. Notable events included Japan’s aggression against China, German rearmament, the Spanish Civil War, and the annexations of Germany and Italy in Eastern Europe, culminating in the German invasion of Poland.

Aggression from Japan to China (1931-1939): Taking advantage of the continuing internal unrest in the Republic of China, Japan invaded Manchuria, creating a satellite state. The League of Nations limited itself to asking Japanese troops to leave China, which they did not. In 1937, Japan decided to invade the rest of the country, leading to the Sino-Japanese War, which linked to World War II and did not conclude until 1945.

German Rearmament (1933-1936): Upon coming to power in 1933, Hitler began to violate the Treaty of Versailles. Germany rearmed first secretly and then publicly, rebuilding its army, navy, and aviation. The remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936 was met with protests from European countries. The Nazi goal was to annex parts of Czechoslovakia and Austria.

The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia (1935-1936): Modern Ethiopia was a member of the League of Nations and was attacked by Mussolini from Italian Somaliland. Britain and France imposed tough economic sanctions, but these measures failed, and Italy conquered Abyssinia in 1936, aligning itself with Germany’s expansionist positions.

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): In 1936, a military uprising occurred in Spain against the Republican government of the Popular Front. Hitler and Mussolini supported General Franco’s revolt by sending weapons, aircraft, and military aid. Britain and France decided not to intervene in support of the Spanish Republic, which only received military aid from the USSR. This war, which showcased antifascist unity, ultimately led to the defeat of democratic forces and the establishment of a dictatorship in Spain.

Annexations by Germany and Italy in Eastern Europe (1938-1939): In March 1938, Germany occupied Austria and annexed it to the Third Reich (Anschluss). Then, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed to Hitler’s demands at the Munich Conference (September 1938) and forced Czechoslovakia to accept the annexation. Hitler thus became the arbiter of Eastern Europe: in March 1939, Germany annexed the territories of Bohemia and Moravia, dismembering Czechoslovakia and creating a new state, Slovakia. Additionally, Lithuania was forced to cede the town of Memel, and Italy conquered Albania in April 1939.

The Invasion of Poland (1939): The ideological alignment and common interests of Italy and Germany were reflected in a series of partnerships between Hitler and Mussolini. In 1936, they formed the Rome-Berlin Axis, which later included Tokyo (the Axis powers during World War II). That same year, they signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (against the USSR), and in 1939, the Pact of Steel. This alliance system included Spain, the new state of Slovakia, and Hungary (which obtained territories from former Czechoslovakia). Moreover, Hitler signed the Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin (August 1939), which allowed Germany to invade Poland on September 1, 1939, marking the beginning of World War II.

2. The Military

Initially, the war only faced Germany against Britain and France. However, it escalated into a global conflict. In World War II, two phases can be distinguished: the first phase (1939-1942) was characterized by Axis victories, while the second phase (1942-1945) saw the initiative pass to the U.S., the USSR, and Britain, forming the Allies.

2.1 The Axis Offensive (1939-1942)

The German strategy aimed to swiftly defeat France to avoid a two-front war and prevent a prolonged conflict. This relied on the temporary neutrality of the USSR and a military strategy that yielded great success in the early years of the war, known as Blitzkrieg. Blitzkrieg combined rapid mechanized warfare with systematic bombing by aviation. Paratroopers were deployed to disrupt enemy communications, leading to the encirclement and swift defeat of enemy forces.

The defeat of France: After subduing Poland, Hitler invaded and defeated Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France in 1940. During the eight months that followed, the French army did not launch an offensive, anticipating a German attack. In May 1940, Hitler’s army attacked where least expected: the Ardennes massif in southern Belgium, deemed inaccessible. This resulted in a major defeat for the Allied army, which managed to save around 300,000 men who retreated to Dunkirk on the French coast to escape the Germans. At this time, with France nearly defeated, Italy declared war on France and Britain (June 1940). All countries invaded by Axis forces were occupied, except for France, which was divided into two areas: one directly occupied by Germany and another in the southern half, with its capital in Vichy, under the command of General Pétain. This established a right-wing authoritarian regime, a satellite of Germany, known as the Vichy regime. Pétain’s system controlled the fleet and colonies, gaining acceptance from most of the French population. Only General Charles de Gaulle and the Free French government in exile opposed it, receiving support from Great Britain.

2.2 The Counterattack and the Allied Victory

In 1942, a decisive year, the Axis powers went on the defensive. In the Pacific, the Japanese fleet suffered serious defeats at Midway and Guadalcanal, losing their best aircraft carriers and pilots. In North Africa, the German army was defeated by British and American forces. The turning point came on the Eastern Front in November 1942, marking a significant defeat for Hitler and a rise in the prestige of the Red Army. From 1943 onwards, the USSR launched ongoing offensives:

• In the summer of 1943, the front was broken at the Battle of Kursk, one of the largest tank battles in history, resulting in a significant German defeat.
• In 1944, the liberation of Nazi satellite states began, including Finland, Hungary, and the Balkan countries. Greece distanced itself from Soviet influence through an agreement with the British.
• Yugoslavia was liberated thanks to the actions of a partisan army led by Tito.
• In April 1945, the Red Army arrived in Berlin.

The Italian campaign: After defeating German forces in North Africa, the Allied army landed in Sicily (July 1943) and Southwestern Italy (September 1943) to alleviate the pressure on the Red Army. Facing internal pressures, Mussolini was forced to resign. After being arrested, he was released by the Germans, who placed him at the head of the Republic of Salò. Partisan groups emerged with significant common ownership, triggering a civil war in Italy against fascists and Germans. The advance of the Allied army through the Italian peninsula was slow. By early 1945, the front stagnated at Florence. The liberation of France and the Rhine followed after gathering a large army in Britain. The Allies landed on the shores of Normandy on D-Day (June 6, 1944). Allied planes bombarded German defenses and industrial zones, leading to the liberation of Paris and the advance toward the Rhine. However, progress was delayed by rivalries among the generals, eager to impose their own plans. U.S. General Eisenhower, the supreme commander of Allied forces, was prudent, while British and U.S. generals Montgomery and Patton vied for the first crossing. Meanwhile, the Germans launched a desperate offensive through the Ardennes massif, momentarily stunning the Americans. The Allies crossed the Rhine and invaded Germany. The unconditional surrender of Germany occurred on May 7, 1945.

The war in the Pacific and the capitulation of Japan: Rivalries over the war also affected U.S. operations in the Pacific. Admiral Nimitz, commanding the fleet based in Hawaii, believed the attack should be carried out in the central Pacific, while General MacArthur, in charge of troops in Australia, favored a southern attack, liberating islands and archipelagos. Ultimately, both tactics were employed, delaying the American advance and the surrender of Japan. Numerous human losses occurred during battles in Tarawa (1943), the Philippines (1944), Iwo Jima, and Okinawa (1945). Bombing of Japan intensified, and in August 1945, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). The destructive power of this new weapon forced the Japanese emperor to surrender on September 2.

3. The War from the Front

World War II was more than just a total war; it involved the fight to the end, utilizing all available resources and mobilizing the entire population. The conflict could only be resolved through the annihilation of the adversary, leading to problems of scarcity, rationing, and diseases, alongside the massive aerial bombardment of civilian populations and the systematic genocide of Jews, Poles, Russians, and Chinese. WWII was not only a war between empires and states but also an ideological and political war that pitted conservatives and fascists against liberals and Marxists. The anti-fascist resistance, an uneasy alliance between conservatives, liberals, democrats, socialists, and communists, formed after 1941 when France was defeated. The entry of the USSR into the war was decisive, as communism mobilized various communist parties, which, despite being a minority in European countries, had organizational skills and traditions that made them the main opposition leaders against fascist regimes and their allies. These groups of saboteurs, partisans, and guerrillas fought against foreign invaders and collaborationist regimes, such as the Republic of Salò or Vichy France. Resistance movements emerged in different countries: in Yugoslavia and Albania, the resistance was able to liberate both countries almost independently, while in France (1943-1944) and Italy (1943-1945), resistance supported American liberation forces. In Poland and Greece, resistance faced both occupiers and supposed liberators. Collaborationist regimes had to submit to the economic, military, and financial necessities of war. In occupied Europe, various forms of collaboration with the Nazis existed:

• The German Reich was formed after the Treaty of Versailles, incorporating territories such as Austria, the Sudetenland, West Poland, Luxembourg, Alsace-Lorraine, Slovenia, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.
• German territories under direct administration were grouped under Reich commissioners, including Norway, the rest of Poland, the Baltic states, and countries that could be Germanized and colonized in a future great Reich.
• Italy was an ally of Germany and expanded its territory after the annexation of Albania, Montenegro, and parts of the Dalmatian coast, occupied by Nazi troops after 1943.
• Territories under the direct authority of the German Army included Denmark, Belgium, parts of France, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, and areas on the Russian front.
• Satellite states, theoretically independent, included Finland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Vichy France, which collaborated voluntarily or by force with Germany, providing troops and financial aid.

Countries sympathetic to the Axis, like Spain, or those in their economic orbit, like Switzerland and Sweden, played a role in supporting Germany.