Understanding Human Behavior and Cognition
Social Learning vs. Classical Conditioning
Social learning theory highlights the significance of observing and imitating others, emphasizing attention, retention, and motivation. Conversely, classical conditioning theory centers on responses elicited through repeated environmental stimuli.
The Sexual Response Cycle
The sexual response cycle unfolds in four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Sensory Adaptation
Sensory adaptation refers to the phenomenon where our sensitivity to a stimulus diminishes after continuous exposure.
Difference Threshold
The difference threshold represents the minimum amount of change required for an individual to detect a difference 50% of the time.
Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia is a condition characterized by difficulty recognizing faces.
Rods and Cones in Vision
Rods: Responsible for vision in low light conditions (scotopic).
Cones: Active in brighter light conditions (photopic).
The Brain and Vision
The occipital lobe of the brain is primarily associated with processing visual information.
Young-Helmholtz Theory of Color Vision
This theory proposes that we perceive color based on how specific color receptors in the eye respond to different wavelengths of light. It identifies three primary color receptors: red, blue, and green.
Visual Information Processing
The processing of visual stimuli follows this order:
- Light entering the eye triggers a photochemical reaction in the rods and cones located at the back of the retina.
- This chemical reaction activates bipolar cells.
- Bipolar cells, in turn, activate ganglion cells.
- The optic nerve transmits the information from ganglion cells to the visual cortex in the brain.
The Visual Cliff Experiment
Conducted by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk in the 1960s, the visual cliff experiment investigated depth perception in infants. The study demonstrated that infants can perceive depth and associate falling over an edge with danger.
Hearing and Loud Sounds
Exposure to loud sounds can cause our ears to ring, serving as a warning sign of potential hearing damage. This ringing is related to the impact on hair cells in the inner ear.
Classical Conditioning Terminology
Classical conditioning involves involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli.
- Conditioned stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
- Conditioned response: A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation).
- Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food in a dog’s mouth).
- Unconditioned response: An unlearned, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation).
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning focuses on forming associations between stimuli and involuntary responses. In contrast, operant conditioning involves organisms learning to associate their actions with consequences.
John Watson’s Little Albert Experiment
John Watson’s renowned study demonstrated classical conditioning by conditioning a baby to develop a fear response to a white rat. This was achieved by repeatedly pairing the rat with a loud, startling noise.
Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., rewarding someone for painting your house).
Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., taking painkillers to alleviate pain).
Punishment vs. Reinforcement
The goal of punishment is to decrease or stop a behavior, while the goal of reinforcement is to increase a behavior.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process where the strength of a behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.
Negative Reinforcement Example
Taking painkillers to relieve pain is an example of negative reinforcement, as it involves removing the unpleasant stimulus (pain) to reinforce the behavior (taking medication).
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
Albert Bandura’s research with the Bobo doll demonstrated that children learn social behaviors, including aggression, through observation and imitation.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes a three-stage memory system:
- Sensory memory: Briefly holds sensory information.
- Short-term memory: Temporarily stores information; rehearsal helps transfer information to long-term memory.
- Long-term memory: Stores information relatively permanently.
Chunking
Chunking is a memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger units, enhancing our ability to remember more information.
Iconic and Echoic Memory
Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory, lasting for a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory, lasting for 3-4 seconds.
Explicit vs. Implicit Memory
Explicit memory: Requires conscious effort for retrieval (e.g., recalling facts or events).
Implicit memory: Operates unconsciously (e.g., riding a bike or procedural skills).
Implicit Memory Improvement
Implicit memory can improve without conscious awareness.
Brain Regions and Explicit Memory
The frontal lobes and hippocampus play crucial roles in the long-term storage of explicit memories.
The Case of H.M.
The case of H.M. significantly advanced our understanding of memory. After surgical removal of his hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy, H.M. lost the ability to form new long-term declarative memories. However, his procedural memory and working memory remained intact, allowing him to learn new skills without conscious recollection of the learning process.
Gender Differences in Memory and Perception
Studies exploring gender differences in memory and perception reveal intriguing patterns:
- Men tend to remember factual details better, while women often retain information related to emotions and relationships.
- Men may exhibit a stronger attentional bias towards visual stimuli with sexual connotations.
- Gender differences in risk-taking behavior and empathy have been observed, potentially influenced by hormonal factors like testosterone.
The Power of Testosterone
Testosterone, a potent hormone, exerts significant influence on both men and women even before birth, shaping various aspects of behavior and cognition.