Understanding Human Behavior and Psychology: A Comprehensive Overview
1. What are Instincts for Humans?
An instinct is a fixed, predictable pattern of behavior that is not learned and is likely rooted in genes and the body. Are they common in humans? This is a complex question with ongoing debate in the field of psychology.
2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid
Self-Transcendence Needs
Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self.
Self-Actualization Needs
Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential.
Esteem Needs
Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others.
Belongingness and Love Needs
Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation.
Safety Needs
Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe.
Physiological Needs
Need to satisfy hunger and thirst.
3. Optimal Performance and Arousal
Optimal performance on a difficult task occurs with moderate arousal.
4. What is a Set Point?
A set point is a stable weight to which the body keeps returning. A person’s set point might rise with age or change with economic or cultural conditions.
5. Hormone Associated with Hunger
Ghrelin
6. Key Terms in Psychology
Homeostasis: A steady internal state; any process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions necessary for survival.
Neophobia: Fear or dislike of unfamiliar things.
Unit Bias: We may eat only one serving of food, but will eat more if the serving size is larger.
7. Theories of Emotion
Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory): Body plus thoughts/label. Suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to body sensations.
Cannon-Bard Theory: Body with thoughts. Asserts body response and emotions occur simultaneously. So, your heart begins pounding as you experience fear.
James-Lange Theory: Body before thoughts. States that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli. According to this theory, if something makes us smile, we may then feel happy.
8. Zajonc and LeDoux’s Work on Emotional Responses
Their work demonstrated that some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought. This suggests that emotions can occur without awareness or cognition.
9. Izard’s 10 Basic Emotions
- Anger
- Contempt
- Disgust
- Distress
- Fear
- Guilt
- Interest
- Joy
- Shame
- Surprise
10. Lymphocytes and Immunity
T Lymphocytes: Play a central role in cell-mediated immunity.
B Lymphocytes: Function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system by secreting antibodies.
11. Type A and Type B Personalities
Type A: Personalities that are more competitive, outgoing, ambitious, impatient, or aggressive.
Type B: Relaxed personalities.
12. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
The ordered phases of GAS are: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
13. Vulnerability to Disease
Various factors, including stress, genetics, and lifestyle choices, can make people more vulnerable to disease. This is a complex area of research with many contributing factors.
14. “Tend and Befriend” Response to Stress
This behavior, exhibited by some animals and humans, involves seeking mutual defense and support in times of stress.
15. Perceived Control and Structured Living
In environments like nursing homes, perceived control can significantly impact well-being. Studies suggest that having a sense of control over one’s environment can reduce stress and improve health outcomes.
16. Optimism, Pessimism, and the Immune System
Positive emotions and an optimistic outlook have been linked to improved immune system functioning.
17. Seligman’s Dog Studies and Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness is the phenomenon where individuals stop trying to escape negative situations because past experiences have led them to believe they are helpless to change their circumstances.
18. Religion and Health Outcomes
Studies have shown a correlation between religious activity and longer lifespans. This may be due to various factors, including social support, healthy behaviors, and a sense of purpose.
19. Freud’s Three Parts of the Mind
Id: Operates on the pleasure principle.
Ego: Operates on the reality principle.
Superego: Represents ideals and standards for judgment (conscience).
20. Oedipus and Electra Complexes, Defense Mechanisms
Oedipus Complex: According to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hate for the father.
Electra Complex: The female counterpart to the Oedipus complex, involving a girl’s attraction to her father and rivalry with her mother.
Defense Mechanisms: Tactics that reduce anxiety by distorting reality. The ego unconsciously defends itself against anxiety.
21. Emphasis on the Unconscious
Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind in shaping thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
22. Rorschach Inkblot Test
This projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
23. Defense Mechanisms Examples
Regression: Retreating to an earlier stage of development when faced with overwhelming anxiety.
Reaction Formation: Acting in a manner opposite to one’s unconscious beliefs.
Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable impulses to others.
Rationalization: Creating self-justifying explanations for one’s behavior.
24. Free Association and Other Psychological Concepts
Free Association: A technique used in psychoanalysis where the patient is encouraged to speak whatever comes to mind.
Identification: The process of adopting the characteristics of the same-sex parent.
Regression: Retreating to an earlier stage of development when faced with overwhelming anxiety.
25. Carl Rogers’ Conditions for Personality Growth
Genuineness: Being honest and authentic.
Acceptance (Unconditional Positive Regard): Accepting others without judgment.
Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.
26. Critiques of the Humanistic Perspective
Some critics argue that the humanistic perspective is too optimistic and doesn’t adequately address the human capacity for evil. Others find it vague and overly individualistic.
27. Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions
The Eysencks studied the dimensions of introversion-extroversion and stability-instability.
28. Key Psychological Terms
Self-Actualization: Reaching one’s full potential.
Reciprocal Determinism: The idea that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Accepting others without judgment.
ESSAYS
1. The Big Five Personality Factors
Openness: Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.
Conscientiousness: A tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
Extraversion: Energy, positive emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.
Agreeableness: A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Neuroticism: The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability.
2. The 5 A’s of Stress Management
Awareness: Recognizing the signs and sources of stress.
Acceptance: Acknowledging that stress is a part of life.
Appreciation: Finding things to be grateful for, even during stressful times.
Action: Taking steps to manage and reduce stress.
Adherence: Sticking to a stress management plan over time.
3. “Super Size Me” and Motivation
The film “Super Size Me” relates to the Drive-Reduction Theory of motivation. This theory suggests that humans are motivated to reduce internal drives, such as hunger, to maintain homeostasis. The film argues that McDonald’s takes advantage of this drive by offering cheap, readily available food that satisfies hunger but is ultimately unhealthy.
The film suggests that McDonald’s targets children through various marketing strategies, including using cartoon characters and offering toys with meals. This creates a positive association with the brand and encourages children to develop lifelong habits of consuming fast food.