Understanding Kantian Formalism and Medieval Citizenship
Kantian Formalism
Kantian formalism posits that a moral action is an end in itself, not a means to an end. Its ethical value lies in being based on duty. Kant’s aim is to identify the essence of morality, what makes an action moral. He seeks to understand what constitutes good and bad. He concludes that good deeds are done with goodwill.
Goodwill
For Kant, goodwill is inherently good. It ensures that someone tries to act in the best way. This concept has been criticized, but Kant develops a morality of intentions, largely ignoring the consequences.
Responsibility
For Kant, acting with good will, or acting out of duty, are equivalent. Duty is the necessity to act in a certain way based on a standard of conduct.
- Acting out of duty means acting selflessly, even if it leads to negative consequences. It is not the same as acting according to duty.
- Acting out of duty means the duty is the sole motivation for action, without considering the consequences. Kant believes that actions performed under duty, without external interest or motivation, are moral.
Categorical Imperative
Acting out of duty means acting in accordance with a moral law. This can be simplified into Kant’s “categorical imperative.” He distinguishes two types:
- Hypothetical imperative: the necessity of an action as a means to achieve something else.
- Categorical imperative: a universal mandate prescribing actions as good in themselves.
Two formulations proposed by Kant are:
- Act as if your action could become a universal standard.
- Treat humanity, both in yourself and in others, always as an end in itself and never merely as a means. Dignity is the fundamental quality of any person as an end in itself and cannot be used indiscriminately as a means to achieve other things.
Autonomy
If the human being is an end in itself, it cannot be subject to a universal law external to itself. Acting out of duty means acting according to a self-imposed duty.
Eclipse of the Medieval Idea of Citizenship
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the idea of citizenship diminished. The feudal system was based on personal links. In medieval society, individuals had limited privileges and rights, unlike Roman patricians who enjoyed full rights.
In the Middle Ages, citizenship was tied to political subordination to a feudal lord or monarch, rather than political participation. After the fall of the Empire, Christianity introduced a different concept of citizenship, separate from political citizenship, as understood by St. Augustine in “City of God.”
The City of God is formed by those moved by true love, understood as charity. The City in the World is composed of those dominated by selfishness and desire.
Thomas Aquinas emphasized the importance of the fundamental natural state as an institution for citizens, because humans are born to be social beings. The concept of the state is inherent in human nature, created by God. Thus, the desired state is the one desired by God. Aquinas’s theory of “Natural Law” delves into the idea of citizenship.
He distinguishes three types of law:
- Natural Law: Incorporates natural human tendencies: conservation, reproduction, and life in society. It is ordered to do good and avoid evil (obligation to preserve existence).
- Positive Law: Also called human law. Enacted by the legislature, it seeks the good of society and applies to humans (standards of movement).
- Eternal or Divine Law: Enacted by God. It governs all things (action of divine providence).
For Aquinas, both natural and positive laws are based on participation in the eternal divine law governing the universe.