Understanding Learning Disabilities: History and Approaches
Understanding Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives and Approaches
Early Diagnosis of Reading Errors
Monroe pioneered the systematic diagnosis of reading errors in children. Her diagnostic tests are still in use today.
Perceptual-Motor Processes and Learning
Marianne Frostig emphasized the importance of visual perception in learning. Her development test of visual perception assessed visual-motor coordination, figure-ground discrimination, shape recognition, and spatial positioning. Her program included training exercises for muscle coordination, body schema, and visual ability.
Integration Stage (1963-1970)
The Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, a nationwide organization, emerged in Chicago, uniting parents of children with head injuries and perceptual impairments.
Kirk emphasized the discrepancy between a child’s performance and their learning potential, suggesting that delays were not due to academic or sensory deficiencies. He advocated for specific instructional methods.
During this period, there was a growing interest in law, associations, and research journals related to learning disabilities.
Current Status (1970s Onward)
This stage is characterized by a dual-track approach to research: neurological and psychological.
From a neuropsychological perspective, the primary symptoms of learning disabilities are attributed to brain deficits resulting from brain injury.
Conversely, learning is viewed as a complex behavior involving the nervous system and brain, with a relationship between the hemispheres and the functioning of mental processes.
Psychological approaches also emerged, with different authors emphasizing various aspects.
Cognitive Approach
Torgesen, a key figure in the cognitive approach, argued that the poor performance of individuals with learning disabilities is partly due to the inefficient use of strategies.
Torgesen investigated three levels of potentially useful interventions:
- Task instruction in highly specific strategies applicable to a single type of task.
- General strategies that aid in the implementation of a series of academic tasks.
- General control processes involved in problem-solving.
Torgesen concluded that students with learning disabilities are often “passive learners” who fail to effectively utilize their intellectual capacities. This theory is based on cognitive theories of information processing, which highlight the role of conscious processing activities in cognitive performance and adaptation to different tasks. Therefore, difficulties experienced by passive learners are attributed to inadequate information processing.
Behaviorism
Kenneth Kavale, representing behaviorism, advocated for atomistic teaching and direct instruction. He emphasized moving from elements to the whole, using reinforcement, task analysis, and early behavior modification.
The behavioral approach to addressing learning disabilities is defined by three characteristics: individualization, direct instruction, and emphasis on the extent of behavior change.
Kavale referred to students with learning disabilities as “decoupled apprentices.”